Bidirektionale Optimalitätstheorie

Bidirectional Optimality Theory Summary. Optimality Theory as developed by Prince, Smolensky and others has been fruitfully applied to phonology, morphology, and syntax. The attempt to apply the ideas developed in these fields to the semantics/pragmatics interface necessitates the conception of a bidirectional OT. The main reason for assuming the idea of bidirectionality (combining expressive and interpretive optimization) derives from a number of phenomena which, on the one hand, demand the treatment of preferred interpretations, and, on the other hand, suggest to take into account the existence of blocking effects. In this article, some general motivation for the idea of bidirectionality is presented, the importance of this idea for the field of pragmatics (conversational implicature) is investigated, and some potential applications of bidirectional OT are outlined. Zusammenfassung. Die von Prince, Smolensky und anderen entwickelte Optimalitätstheorie (OT) hat ihre Fruchtbarkeit in den Bereichen Phonologie, Morphologie und Syntax zulänglich bewiesen. Der Versuch, die auf diesen Gebieten erarbeiteten Grundideen auf die Semantik/Pragmatik-Schnittstelle anzuwenden, führt zwingend auf das Konzept einer bidirektionalen OT. Der Hauptgrund für die Annahme von Bidirektionalität (Kombination von interpretativer und expressiver Optimierung) ergibt sich vor allem daraus, dass im genannten Bereich eine Reihe von Phänomenen existieren, die einerseits die Behandlung von vorgezogenen Interpretationen verlangen und andererseits zur Berücksichtigung von Blockierungseffekten auffordern. Die vorliegende Arbeit gibt eine allgemeine Motivation für Bidirektionalität, untersucht die Wirkungsweise von Bidirektionalität im Bereich der Pragmatik (konversationelle Implikaturen) und gibt eine Übersicht über potenzielle Anwendungen.     

How need for cognition affects the formation of performance expectancies at school

Individuals with low Need for Cognition (NFC) have been found to process information using a peripheral route compared to individuals higher in NFC. These differences affect the formation of performance expectancies. Based on previous work demonstrating that the formation of performance expectancies can be understood as an information processing event and that inferring expectancies from the specific self-concept requires cognitive motivation, we tested whether students with higher NFC had performance expectancies in a specific subject that more strongly depended on specific self-concept. The participants (554 tenth grade students) reported their NFC, performance expectancies, general self-concept, and specific self-concepts in mathematics and English. Actual performance was assessed for mathematics. Multiple linear regressions supported the interaction-hypothesis concerning performance expectancies in mathematics and English. In addition, the higher the students’ NFC, the stronger actual performance in mathematics related to the specific self-concept. The results suggested that performance expectancies mediated the effect of self-concept on performance. NFC is an important variable influencing motivational processes, and should be included in models describing the relation between self-concepts and individuals beliefs or behaviors.     

Exercise psychology: A view from Europe

ObjectiveTo provide a review and commentary on developments and key issues in the psychology of health-related physical activity (‘exercise psychology’).Design and MethodNarrative review and commentary.ResultsA view from Europe is provided, with an emphasis on European influence and research. Summary commentaries are provided using the behavioural epidemiological framework as an organisational tool. The role of psychology is discussed in the study of physical activity correlates, theory, and interventions.ConclusionsThe European influence in exercise and health psychology has been significant. However, more needs to be known about pre-intentional motivation processes and post-intentional volition, as well as clarifying and extending theories (e.g., translating intentions into behaviour). There is also a need to do more intervention work, and to improve how we conduct, evaluate and report interventions. New issues are emerging, including the study of sedentary behaviour.     

The semantic red effect: Processing the word red undermines intellectual performance

Recent research has shown that a two second glimpse of color can have an important influence on affect, cognition, and behavior. The present research examined whether perceiving color is necessary to produce an effect on psychological functioning or whether the mere act of processing a color word might be sufficient. Specifically, four experiments tested the hypothesis that processing the word red undermines intellectual performance, much like actually perceiving the color red. Supportive data were obtained with three different types of subtle manipulation, with three different types of control words, and on two different types of IQ test performance. Worry, but not mood or general arousal, was shown to mediate the semantic red effect, which appears to take place outside of individuals’ awareness. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.     

Spatial navigation: Cognitive variables involved in route retracing among an elderly population

The cognitive processes involved in route retracing are not well known. This study aims to highlight them in an elderly population in which contradictory results have been obtained, certain studies showing specific difficulties for route retracing, others not. Thirty-nine elderly subjects performed a route-learning task (forward-backward) in a garden, then completed spatial knowledge tasks and standardised cognitive tests. Results show four factors that were predictive of route retracing performance: route repetition, the pointing task, and two standardised cognitive tests, one assessing spatial working memory, and another global cognitive efficiency. According to these results, route retracing involves route and survey knowledge (i.e., egocentric and allocentric strategy), and the integration of forward-backward perspectives is underpinned by the spatial working memory. Moreover, the subjects did not make more errors in route retracing than in the route repetition task, suggesting that a real environment could compensate for a failing allocentric strategy.     

Neural Mechanisms of Visual Feature Binding Investigated with Microelectrodes and Models

A single object generally activates neurones in many visual cortical areas corresponding to a distributed representation of its features. Itis still under debate how the distributed representation of an objectis bound intoa coherent whole and how unrelated features are separated. Synchronization of neural signals has been proposed to code spatial feature binding, supported by the discovery of synchronized assemblies in visual cortex. Synchronizations are either fast oscillatory (30–90 Hz) cortically generated events, or non-rhythmical stimulus-locked responses, depending on the visual stimulation. The cortical range over which synchronizations occur, transformed to visual space, is generally several times larger than the classical receptive fields (CRF) of neurones in lower visual cortex areas. However, the cortical regions synchronized by fastoscillations do notspan the representational range of larger objects but only parts of it. To relate such restricted segments to perceptual processes the concept of the association field (AF) of local neural assemblies was introduced in accordance with CRFs of single neurones. Here an AF is composed of the aggregate of CRFs of an assembly engaged in a common synchronized state. Itis argued thatspatial continuity of an object is coded by a continuum of overlapping AFs, that is, by overlapping regions of phase coupled neurones. Hence, object continuity would be represented by phase continuity. Besides feature binding, feature separation is necessary for scene segmentation. Separation may be coded by functional decoupling causing uncorrelated activities or by mutual inhibition leading to alternating activations in assemblies of separate representations. A third temporal coding aspect is temporal segmentation by the shortactivation-inhibition cycles of fast oscillations orshorttransientstimulus-locked responses, which may preventperceptual “smearing” by interrupting the flow of visual information into precisely defined frames. The presentpaperalso aims atrelating signals of stimulus dependentsynchronization and desynchronization with basic neural mechanisms and circuits. Finally, the synchronization hypothesis is critically discussed with respect to contradictory psychophysical work and supportive new recording results, including evidence for perception-related synchronizations.     

Factors underlying expectancies of success and achievement: the influential roles of need for cognition and general or specific self-concepts

It has been assumed that task-specific self-concepts are more important than general self-concepts in determining expectancies of success and subsequent achievement. The authors argue here that the influence varies depending on need for cognition (NFC). Findings from Study 1 (N=104) showed that expectancies of success in an academic task could be predicted from specific self-concept for individuals with a high NFC and from general self-concept for individuals with a low NFC. In Study 2 (N=193), where cognitive load was manipulated, given a high cognitive load, only general self-concept was predictive of success expectancies, independent of NFC. In Study 3 (N=197), given a high relevance of correct expectancy ratings, only specific self-concept was predictive of expectancies and actual achievement, independent of NFC. In Studies 4 and 5, the results from Study 1 concerning the prediction of expectancies (as well as achievement) reappeared in a physical and a social domain.