An outline of a theory of action systems

It is argued that the traditional psychological construal of the distinction between central ("open loop") and peripheral ("closed loop") neural processes is no longer tenable. A review of the relevant psychobiological research on the control of movement shows that both the central-peripheral dichotomy and the distinction between sensory and motor systems derived from that dichotomy are incompatible with what is known about the processes underlying action. Based on experimental and comparative data, a new theory of action is proposed. The basic concept of this new theory is the action system: Unlike motor systems, action systems involve sensory as well as motor processes; action systems are not organized into response hierarchies, but rather in coalitional structures of adjustable movements and postures. The phylogeny of action systems is discussed, and the eight most important action systems are distinguished in terms of their evolved distinctive functions. The difficulties of developing a taxonomy of actions for functionally specific types of behavior made up of that can be controlled is resolved by showing how kinds of action are differentiated by the kinds of affordances their components help to realize.     

The role of analogy in transfer between similar problem states

The study investigated the effect of transfer between two problems having similar (homomorphic) problem states. The results of three experiments revealed that although transfer occurred between repetition of the same problems, transfer occurred between the Jealous Husbands problem and the Missionary—Cannibal problem only when (a) Ss were told the relationship between the two problems and (b) the Jealous Husbands problem was given first. The results are related to the formal structure of the problem space and to alternative explanations of the use of analogy in problem solving. These include memory for individual moves, memory for general strategies, and practice in applying operators.     

Logic, ethics, and rhetoric of research on rape: a reply to Mosher and Bond

Mosher and Bond (this issue) suggest experimental designs that are not appropriate for the research purposes they criticize. In defending their own research, they make contradictory statements about the realism of their guided imagery procedure for simulating rape. They present data that we believe provide evidence for the possibility that wrongful harm occurred in their previous research. We assert our right to study the ethics of research and object to specious charges of having threatened sexual freedom and being associated with ideologues of the right and left.     

Analysis of potentiation and overshadowing effects in the instrumental performance of pigeons

In each of two experiments, pigeons were trained on a multiple VI (variable interval) schedule with a 3-s delay of reinforcement. Different components were associated with different key colors. Experiment 1 (stage 2) confirmed a previous finding that the response rate is higher in a component having a signal (illumination of the houselight) filling the delay interval than in a component lacking the signal. This potentiation effect was replaced by an overshadowing effect (i.e., the rate was low in the signaled component) when in stage 1 of Experiment 1 the birds received concurrent experience of a component containing houselight presentations not correlated with reinforcement. In Experiment 2 it was found that this overshadowing effect was abolished when the signal used was the presentation of a pattern on the response key rather than illumination of the houselight. These results are interpreted in terms of an interaction between the rate-enhancing properties of the signal (perhaps a consequence of its conditioned reinforcing power) and the tendency of the signal in some conditions to evoke behavior that competes with the response being recorded.     

No confirmation of Geschwind's hypothesis of associations between reading disability,immune disorders,and motor preference in ADHD

Geschwind and colleagues have proposed an association among reading disability, immune disorder, and motor preference. Although reading disability commonly overlaps with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), ADHD has not been previously examined in studies evaluating Geschwind's hypothesis. In this paper we evaluate whether ADHD is associated with either asthma or left motor preference and whether asthma and left motor preference are associated with each other. Subjects were 6- to 17-year-old boys with DSM-III-R ADHD (n= 140) and normal controls (n= 120). Information on reading disability, asthma, and motor preference was obtained in a standardized manner blind to the proband's clinical status. Neither ADHD nor reading disability was associated with either asthma or left motor preference nor was asthma and left motor preference associated with one another. Our results are not consistent with Geschwind's hypothesis linking reading disability, immune disorder, and left motor preference. This work was supported, in part, by USPHS (NIMH) grant RO1 MH-41314-01A2 (J.B.). We thank Drs. Benjamin, Kolodny, and Krauss from the Pediatric Department of the Harvard Community Health Plan and Dr. James Perrin from the Pediatric Service of the Massachusetts General Hospital for their contribution to this work.Address all correspondence, including reprint requests, to Joseph Biederman, M.D., Pediatric Psychopharmacology, ACC-725, Massachusetts General Hospital, 15 Parkman Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02114.     

Automatic activation of phonological information in reading: Evidence from the semantic relatedness decision task

A semantic relatedness decision task was used to investigate whether phonological recoding occurs automatically and whether it mediates lexical access in visual word recognition and reading. In this task, subjects read a pair of words and decided whether they were related or unrelated in meaning. In Experiment 1, unrelated word-homophone pairs (e.g., LION-BARE) and their visual controls (e.g., LION-BEAN) as well as related word pairs (e.g., FISH-NET) were presented. Homophone pairs were more likely to be judged as related or more slowly rejected as unrelated than their control pairs, suggesting phonological access of word meanings. In Experiment 2, word-pseudohomophone pairs (e.g., TABLE-CHARE) and their visual controls (e.g., TABLE-CHARK) as well as related and unrelated word pairs were presented. Pseudohomophone pairs were more likely to be judged as related or more slowly rejected as unrelated than their control pairs, again suggesting automatic phonological recoding in reading.     

Influence of the cost of responding

In three experiments, the effect of costs associated with responding on judgments of the causal effectiveness of the response was examined. In Experiment 1, the temporal interval between outcomes was matched on a variable interval (VI) and a variable ratio (VR) schedule. When each response was made at some “cost,” and outcomes represented some “gain” for the subject, the rating of causal effectiveness for responses was higher on the VR than on the VI schedule. This relationship was absent when the outcome was a triangle Hash. In Experiment 2, the number of responses required per outcome on a VI and a VR schedule were matched, and responses on the VR schedule were rated as more causally effective. In Experiment 3, a VI-to-VR yoking procedure was used. With minimal response costs, judgments were similar on the VI and VR schedules, but with greater response costs, responses performed on the VR schedule were rated as more causally effective than those emitted on the VI schedule.     

Elevating the Voices of Girls in Custody for Improved Treatment and Systemic Change in the Juvenile Justice System

The U.S. juvenile justice system does not meet the needs of girls in custody, and often fails to address girls’ symptoms of trauma and high rates of sexual exploitation histories. As the system shifts away from punitive detention to a trauma‐informed approach with community‐based services, community psychologists and other helping professionals can help center the needs and experiences of girls in custody. As part of a multi‐year collaboration, our research team created a confidential youth advisory process in one juvenile detention center (JDC). We acted as liaisons between the girls in custody and JDC administrators, reporting girls’ feedback to agencies at monthly meetings. Participant confidentiality, safety, and consent were priorities. The girls’ feedback, which was conceptualized within a System Responsiveness and hierarchy of needs framework, led JDC probation and mental health staff to improve services (e.g., better laundry system, longer showers, warmer food), climate (e.g., consistent reward system, confidentiality of grievances), and treatment (e.g., increase focus on gender and culture) to reduce the trauma of incarceration among girls in custody. Girls’ feedback also catalyzed systemic change that led to a reduction in the JDC population in favor of wraparound community‐based services better suited to meet girls’ needs. Implications for community psychology values and the juvenile justice system, including the benefits and challenges of this type of collaboration, are discussed.     

Global Collaborative Team Performance for the Revision of the International Classification of Diseases: A Case Study of the World Health Organization Field Studies Coordination Group

Background/Objective: Collaborative teamwork in global mental health presents unique challenges, including the formation and management of international teams composed of multicultural and multilingual professionals with different backgrounds in terms of their training, scientific expertise, and life experience. The purpose of the study was to analyze the performance of the World Health Organization (WHO) Field Studies Coordination Group (FSCG) using an input-processes-output (IPO) team science model to better understand the team's challenges, limitations, and successes in developing the eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Method: We thematically analyzed a collection of written texts, including FSCG documents and open-ended qualitative questionnaires, according to the conceptualization of the input-processes-output model of team performance. Results: The FSCG leadership and its members experienced and overcame numerous barriers to become an effective international team and to successfully achieve the goals set forth by WHO. Conclusions: Research is necessary regarding global mental health collaboration to understand and facilitate international collaborations with the goal of contributing to a deeper understanding of mental health and to reduce the global burden of mental disorders around the world.