Ethics and the funding of research and development at universities

As a result of a gradual shifting of the resourcing of universities from the public to the private sector, the academic institution has been required to acquire some of its additional funding from industry via partnerships based on research and development. This paper examines this new condition and asks whether the different mission statements or modi operandi of the university vis à vis industry throws up additional ethical issues. While there are conditions where the interactions between industry and the university may be seen to be between partners with some degree of equivalence, many such interactions, lacking this balance, are in danger of generating more concerns. It should also not be forgotten that independent publicly funded research establishments may also play an important role in the production of the innovation and development needed to maintain the strength of an industrial economy.     

Review Essay: On Common Ground: World Religions in America

Diana L. Eck and the Pluralism Project at Harvard University, On Common Ground: World Religiions in America     

Memory for Duration: Role of Hippocampus and Medial Prefrontal Cortex

In this task rats had to learn that a three-dimensional object stimulus (a rectangle) that was visible for 2 s would result in a positive (go) reinforcement for one object (a ball) and no reinforcement (no go) for a different object (a bottle). However, if the rectangle stimulus was visible for 8 s then there would be no reinforcement for the ball (no go), but a reinforcement for the bottle (go). After rats learned this conditional discrimination by responding differentially in terms of latency to approach the object, they received large (dorsal and ventral) lesions of the hippocampus, lesions of the medial prefrontal cortex (anterior cingulate and precentral cortex), lesions of the cortex dorsal to the dorsal hippocampus, or served as sham-operated controls. Following recovery from surgery they were retested. The results indicate that there were major impairments following hippocampal lesions, in contrast to cortical control and medial prefrontal cortex lesions, as indicated by smaller latency differences between positive and negative trials on postsurgery tests. In order to ensure that the deficits observed with hippocampal lesions were not due to a discrimination problem, new rats were trained in an object (gray cylinder) duration discrimination task. In this go/no go procedure, the rats were reinforced for a 2-s exposure (duration) of the gray cylinder, but not a 10-s duration, or vice versa. The results indicate that after hippocampal lesions, there was an initial deficit followed by complete recovery. There were no significant changes for the medial prefrontal, cortical control, or sham-operated animals. It appears that the hippocampus, but not the medial prefrontal cortex, is actively involved in representing in short-term memory temporal attribute information based on the use of markers for the beginning and end of the presence (duration) of a stimulus (object).     

The Effects of Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptor Blockade in the Rat Anterior Cingulate and Prelimbic/Infralimbic Cortices on Spatial Working Memory

Previous findings indicate that cholinergic input to the medial prefrontal cortex may modulate mnemonic processes. The present experiment determined whether blockade of muscarinic cholinergic receptors in the rodent anterior cingulate and prelimbic/infralimbic cortices impairs spatial working memory. In a 12-arm radial maze, a working memory for spatial locations task was employed using a continuous recognition go/no-go procedure. Rats were allowed to enter 12 arms for a reinforcement. Of the 12 arm presentations, 3 or 4 arms were presented for a second time in a session that did not contain a reinforcement. The number of trials between the first and second presentations of an arm ranged from 0 to 6 (lags). Infusions of scopolamine (1, 5, and 10 μg), a muscarinic cholinergic antagonist, into the prelimbic/infralimbic cortices, but not the anterior cingulate cortex, significantly impaired spatial working memory in a lag- and dose-dependent manner. The deficit induced by scopolamine (10 μg) was attenuated by concomitant intraprelimbic/infralimbic injections of oxotremorine (2 μg), a muscarinic cholinergic agonist. A separate group of rats was tested on a successive spatial discrimination task. Injections of scopolamine (1, 5, and 10 μg) into the prelimbic/infralimbic cortices did not impair performance on the spatial discrimination task. These findings suggest that muscarinic transmission in the prelimbic/infralimbic cortices, but not the anterior cingulate cortex, is important for spatial working memory.     

On the causes and effects of inhibition of return

Unpredictive visual transient cues have a biphasic effect on reaction times (RTs) to peripheral onset targets. At relatively short (e.g., 150-msec) cue-target stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs), RTs to targets at cued versus uncued locations are facilitated, whereas at relatively long SOAs (e.g., beyond 300 msec), they are inhibited. The present review explores the conditions under which this latter, inhibitory, effect-referred to as inhibition of return (IOR; Posner & Cohen, 1984)—is revealed and those conditions under which it is generated. We argue that the extant literature converges on the view that IOR reflects a motor response bias that is generated by the activation of an oculomotor program to fixate the cue. However, we reveal that current conceptualizations of IOR are based on a limited sampling of possible tests of the generation and measurement of IOR and indicate where further experimental research is critical.     

On the Dimensionality of Jones' (1986) Measures of Organizational Socialization Tactics

One of the most theoretically developed models of organizational socialization is Van Maanen and Schein's (1979) typology of six tactics. Jones' (1986) operationalization of these tactics has been used in most survey studies of the Van Maanen and Schein model. However, questions remain concerning the dimensionality of the operationalization. Self-report data from business school graduates after 4 months (n = 295) and 10 months (n = 222) on the job indicate that: (1) a 6-factor model better approximates the covariance matrix of the socialization items than do competing 1- and 3-factor models, (2) the 6-factor model better predicts certain work adjustment variables than the 3-factor model, and the 3-factor model better predicts certain variables than the 1-factor model, and (3) the collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and investiture tactics are positively interrelated, suggesting a structured program of early work experience.     

Neurocognitive functioning in chronic fatigue syndrome

Although substantial research has been conducted on chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) over the past decade, the syndrome remains poorly understood. The most recent case definition describes CFS as being characterized both by disabling fatigue and by subjective reports of difficulty with concentration and short-term memory. However, research into the neurocognitive and psychological functioning of individuals with CFS has provided mixed objective results. The current paper reviews studies that have examined the neurocognitive and/or psychological functioning of individuals with CFS. Changes in research design and instruments employed to study individuals with CFS are suggested.