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491.
Niall Shanks Ray Greek Jean Greek 《Philosophy, ethics, and humanities in medicine : PEHM》2009,4(1):2-20
It is one of the central aims of the philosophy of science to elucidate the meanings of scientific terms and also to think
critically about their application. The focus of this essay is the scientific term predict and whether there is credible evidence that animal models, especially in toxicology and pathophysiology, can be used to predict
human outcomes. Whether animals can be used to predict human response to drugs and other chemicals is apparently a contentious
issue. However, when one empirically analyzes animal models using scientific tools they fall far short of being able to predict
human responses. This is not surprising considering what we have learned from fields such evolutionary and developmental biology,
gene regulation and expression, epigenetics, complexity theory, and comparative genomics. 相似文献
492.
493.
Nonmonotonic abductive inductive learning 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) is concerned with the task of generalising sets of positive and negative examples with respect to background knowledge expressed as logic programs. Negation as Failure (NAF) is a key feature of logic programming which provides a means for nonmonotonic commonsense reasoning under incomplete information. But, so far, most ILP research has been aimed at Horn programs which exclude NAF, and has failed to exploit the full potential of normal programs that allow NAF. By contrast, Abductive Logic Programming (ALP), a related task concerned with explaining observations with respect to a prior theory, has been well studied and applied in the context of normal logic programs. This paper shows how ALP can be used to provide a semantics and proof procedure for nonmonotonic ILP that utilises practical methods of language and search bias to reduce the search space. This is done by lifting an existing method called Hybrid Abductive Inductive Learning (HAIL) from Horn clauses to normal logic programs. To demonstrate its potential benefits, the resulting system, called XHAIL, is applied to a process modelling case study involving a nonmonotonic temporal Event Calculus (EC). 相似文献
494.
495.
Simone F. Lambert Michael LeBlanc Jodi Ann Mullen Dee Ray Jennifer Baggerly JoAnna White David Kaplan 《Journal of counseling and development : JCD》2007,85(1):42-46
Through a joint research committee sponsored by the Association for Play Therapy (APT) and the American Counseling Association (ACA), The National Play Therapy in Counseling Practices Project conducted the first phase of investigation. Findings offered a snapshot of mental health providers of play therapy, regarding the nature of who they are and what they do. In terms of training, play modalities, theoretical orientation, and employment setting, comparisons were made based on membership of participants in ACA or APT. Further research was suggested to examine the effectiveness of play therapy with specific therapeutic issues. 相似文献
496.
Jehanne Almerigogna James Ost Ray Bull Lucy Akehurst 《Applied cognitive psychology》2007,21(7):963-974
The present study examined the effects of state and trait anxiety on 8–11 years old children's susceptibility to misleading post‐event information. Participants' state and trait anxiety were measured, after which they watched an extract from a children's movie. They were then individually interviewed using either a supportive or a non‐supportive style. During the interviews, the children were asked 14 questions about the movie, seven of which were control and seven contained misleading information. After the interview, their state anxiety was measured again. Results showed that participants interviewed in a non‐supportive style were more likely to provide incorrect answers to misleading questions. Furthermore, participants who scored highly on both trait and post‐interview state anxiety measures more often responded incorrectly to misleading questions. Also, pre‐to post‐interview changes in state anxiety were correlated with more incorrect responses to misleading questions. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献
497.
The authors examined long-term semantic priming of middle- and low-familiarity category exemplar targets as a result of participants' studying multiple middle- and low-familiarity exemplar primes within a category. The authors used a lexical decision task to test the hypothesis that semantic encoding of middle- and low-familiarity category exemplar primes causes long-term priming of middle- and low-familiarity category exemplar targets from the same category. Participants were 12 undergraduate students who judged semantic characteristics of category exemplar primes at study and at test and who provided lexical decisions on both primes and targets in a paradigm in which at least 6 intervening items separated primes and targets. Results supported the hypothesis by showing long-term semantic priming of middle- and low-familiarity category exemplar targets. The authors discuss results in terms of theories of semantic priming. 相似文献
498.
Cochrane A Barnes-Holmes D Barnes-Holmes Y Stewart I Luciano C 《Behaviour research and therapy》2007,45(6):1379-1388
In Experiment 1, participants high (n=15) or low in avoidance (n=14), as measured by the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire, completed a simple matching task that required them to choose whether or not to look at an aversive visual image. Only the high-avoidance participants took longer to emit a correct response that produced an aversive rather than a neutral picture. Additionally, the high-avoiders reported greater levels of anxiety following the experiment even though they rated the aversive images as less unpleasant and less emotionally arousing than their low-avoidant counterparts. In Experiment 2, three groups, representing high-, mid- and low-avoidance (n=6 in each) repeated the matching task with the additional recording of event-related potentials (ERPs). The findings of Experiment 1 were replicated in terms of reaction times and subjective ratings. The ERPs confirmed that the participants attended to the content of the images and differentiated between the aversive and neutral image types. The ERPs also showed significantly greater negativity for electrodes over the left hemisphere relative to the midline for only the high-experiential avoidance (EA) group. Given the left hemisphere dominance for language, the data suggest that the high-EA group engaged in verbal strategies to regulate their emotional responses. 相似文献
499.
The consequences of holding an entity (i.e., the belief that a group's characteristics are fixed) or incremental (i.e., the belief that a group's characteristics are malleable) implicit theory about groups was examined for stereotyping and perceptions of group entitativity. Two studies showed that implicit theories about groups affect stereotyping by changing perceptions of group entitativity. Study 1 found that entity theorists were more likely to stereotype than incremental theorists and that perception of group entitativity significantly accounted for this relation. In Study 2, implicit theories of groups were manipulated via instruction set and entity theorists stereotyped more and perceived groups as more entitative than incremental theorists. Again, the effect of implicit theory was significantly, although partially, mediated by perceptions of group entitativity. The roles of implicit theories about groups and perceptions of group entitativity are discussed regarding stereotyping. 相似文献
500.
Abduction is or subsumes a process of inference. It entertains possible hypotheses and it chooses hypotheses for further scrutiny.
There is a large literature on various aspects of non-symbolic, subconscious abduction. There is also a very active research
community working on the symbolic (logical) characterisation of abduction, which typically treats it as a form of hypothetico-deductive
reasoning. In this paper we start to bridge the gap between the symbolic and sub-symbolic approaches to abduction. We are
interested in benefiting from developments made by each community. In particular, we are interested in the ability of non-symbolic
systems (neural networks) to learn from experience using efficient algorithms and to perform massively parallel computations
of alternative abductive explanations. At the same time, we would like to benefit from the rigour and semantic clarity of
symbolic logic. We present two approaches to dealing with abduction in neural networks. One of them uses Connectionist Modal
Logic and a translation of Horn clauses into modal clauses to come up with a neural network ensemble that computes abductive
explanations in a top-down fashion. The other combines neural-symbolic systems and abductive logic programming and proposes
a neural architecture which performs a more systematic, bottom-up computation of alternative abductive explanations. Both
approaches employ standard neural network architectures which are already known to be highly effective in practical learning
applications. Differently from previous work in the area, our aim is to promote the integration of reasoning and learning
in a way that the neural network provides the machinery for cognitive computation, inductive learning and hypothetical reasoning,
while logic provides the rigour and explanation capability to the systems, facilitating the interaction with the outside world.
Although it is left as future work to determine whether the structure of one of the proposed approaches is more amenable to
learning than the other, we hope to have contributed to the development of the area by approaching it from the perspective
of symbolic and sub-symbolic integration.
相似文献
John WoodsEmail: |