The sequential structure of the quantal experiment

A linear model is proposed for the interrelation of successive responses in the quantal experiment. The model is based on a direct mechanism of response linkage rather than on an indirect relation by means of fluctuations in sensitivity, because Neisser's published results implicate the former mechanism rather than the latter. The proportion of increments detected is an unbiased estimator of the detection probability and has a statistical efficiency of only 20%. In view of this unexpectedly low efficiency it is possible that rectilinear psychometric results have occurred by means of a biased, but unwitting, selection of data.     

The use of muroid rodents in the psychology laboratory

The rodent superfamily Muroidea represents a group of animals with much potential for comparative behavioral study as they are readily acquired, easy to maintain, and exist with sufficient ecological and behavioral diversity to enhance the likelihood of significant results. The superfamily includes Old World rodents, gerbils, hamsters, and a considerable variety of New World rats, mice, and voles which inhabit all 48 adjacent United States. Potential uses of muroid rodents, their taxonomy, and their husbandry are described with particular reference to the 28 species that have been maintained in the author’s laboratory. Although research on muroid behavior is just beginning, available data already support the proposed utility of these animals in behavioral research.     

Biochemistry of nervous dogs

Previous behavioral studies on a nervous strain of pointer dogs have demonstrated genetic as well as environmental components in the nervous trait. Behaviorally these animals are extremely hypervigilant, with an apparent low threshold to fear and show strong avoidance of humans. In addition, the nervous E strain dogs show an unusually high degree of sensitivity to the mange mite. These observations led to the initiation of studies to determine whether differences exist between the normal A strain and the E strain of dogs at the biochemical level. Although a number of biochemical parameters examined have shown no statistically significant difference between the two strains, the modification of serum creatine phosphokinase (CPK) activity in response to various types of stress does differ as a function of strain—the nervous dogs being less, not more, responsive than the healthy dogs. When not specifically subjected to stress the serum CPK levels in both strains were highly related to age. Significant differences between strains also have been demonstrated in the cerebrospinal fluid acetyl cholinesterase activity levels in older animals. Tryptophan loading experiments, conducted in the presence and absence of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor, tranylcypromine, resulted in no readily observable behavioral modification of either strain and the response of the cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels was similar for the two strains.     

Masking of tones by tones and of noise by noise

Using a two-alternative temporal forced-choice technique, two binaural detection experiments were performed. In the first, the detectability of a 250-Hz 128-msec tonal signal masked by a gated 70-dB SPL tone of the same frequency and duration was measured as a function of the level of the signal, the phase angle at which the signal was added to the masker, and the interaural phase difference of the signal. In the second experiment, the signal was a wideband (100-3,000 Hz) 128-msec Gaussian noise masked by a continuous Gaussian noise of the same bandwidth and coherent with the signal. The detectability of this noise signal was measured as a function of the same variables investigated in the first experiment. In both experiments detectability was found to follow a simple energy- or power-detection model when the interaural phase difference was 0 deg. When the interaural phase difference was 180 deg, the function relating the signal level required for a constant level of performance to the signal-masker phase angle is such that neither the Webster-Jeffress hypothesis nor Durlach’s E-C model accounts for the data. The data are reasonably well fit by a model proposed by Hafter and Carrier.     

Lateralization of an auditory signal in correlated noise and in uncorrelated noise as a function of signal frequency

Listeners lateralized a monaural signal presented against a continuous background of perfectly correlated noise (NO) or of uncorrelated noise (NU). Measures of signal detectability were also secured in separate tests. Psychometric functions (percent correct vs signal energy) were determined for each task. For a tonal signal of either low or high frequency, a listener requires only slightly greater signal energy (about 1 dB) in order to lateralize as well as he can detect when the noise is uncorrelated (NU). When the noise is perfectly correlated (NO), the slope of the psychometric function for lateralization depends upon signal frequency. With 250 Hz, the slope of the psychometric function for lateralization is much smaller than that for detection. With 1,000 Hz, the function for lateralization is steeper than that for 250 Hz, but the slope is still less than that of the function for detection for 1,000 Hz. With 2,000 Hz, the function for lateralization has about the same slope as that for detection.     

Metrics on spaces of finite trees

With the increasing popularity of hierarchical clustering methods in behavioral science, there is a need for ways of quantitatively comparing different tree structures on the same set of items. We employ lattice-theoretic methods to construct a variety of metrics on spaces of trees and to analyze their properties. Certain of these metrics are applied to data from Fillenbaum and Rapoport (1971) on the semantic structure of common English kin terms. This application shows that tree metrics can be used to select a componential analysis which is maximally consistent with an empirically derived set of trees.     

Defining reinforcess — A problem in communication for consultation in behavior modification

This paper reviews the respondent (Hull-Spence) and operant (Skinnerian) conditioning definitions of reinforcers and reinforcement and demonstrates the need to keep the systems separate when consulting about behavior modification. The two systems are shown to lead to different modification procedures.One important distinction between the systems is whether a reinforcer is simply associated with a response (respondent) or whether it must follow the response (operant). A second important distinction is the definition of negative reinforcement. In respondent conditioning, negative reinforcement entails presenting an aversive stimulus in association with the response and results in a decrease in response rate. In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement entails the removal of an aversive stimulus following a correct response, which results in an increase in response rate.     

Effects of metronome-conditioned relaxation,metronome-induced relaxation,and progressive muscle relaxation on insomnia

Although several controlled studies have indicated that relaxation can be effectively employed in the treatment of insomnia (Borkovec and Fowles, 1973; Steinmark and Borkovec. 1974; Haynes et al., 1974), the relaxation training procedures thus far utilized have typically necessitated several hours of therapist-client contact. The possibility of a more efficient relaxation procedure for treating insomniacs suggests an attractive alternative to the tense-relax instructions of progressive muscle relaxation (Jacobson, 1938). Brady (1973) has reported that the sound of a metronome set at 60 beats per min is inherently relaxing, and although he has only reported on the effects of the metronome when paired with verbally-induced relaxation (both general suggestions of relaxation and instructions to tense and relax successive muscle groups), he has successfully employed this technique in the treatment of borborygmi (rumbling noises in the abdomen) and essential hypertension (Brady, 1973; Brady, Luborsky and Kron, 1974). If the sound of the metronome alone, which would require minimal therapist-client contact, is sufficient to induce relaxation, the efficiency with which relaxation can be achieved in the treatment of insomnia, as well as other tension-related disorders. may be greatly enhanced.The present study was designed to assess the relaxation-inducing properties of (a) Brady's metronome-conditioned relaxation (metronome plus verbal relaxation instructions), (b) progressive muscle relaxation and (c) metronome-induced relaxation (the sound of a metronome alone) in the treatment of insomnia. In order to provide an evaluation of the effectiveness of relaxation techniques with a broader population than was sampled in previous investigations of this nature, this study included employed adults as well as college students in the subject pool. In addition to its implications for treating insomnia, this study was designed to yield an independent test of the hypothesis that a 60 beat per min metronome sound has the capacity by itself to induce relaxation.