计算机和形而上学

什么是形而上学我要使用的方法是起源于古代而今天仍为人们所使用的方法,也就是给出一些实例,再从中抽象得出一般的原理。让我们以罗马诗人卢克莱修的形而上学为例,他借用了古希腊原子论者的观点。卢克莱修认为,基本的实体是由原子和虚空或空间所组成的。原子是坚硬的,小到我们看不见它,它们在空无的空间中运动并且保持不变。     

苏格拉底的反证法简论

我这里所讲的苏格拉底,是柏拉图早期对话中的苏格拉底。依我看来,柏拉图在对话中重建了这个历史人物的哲学方法和哲学学说。这里,我将着重谈谈我认为是苏格拉底从事哲学研究的主要方法,我把它称之为“标准反证法”。这个名称有别于R.鲁滨逊等人的“间接反证法”。他们之所以称它为“间接反证法”,是因为在反证时,驳斥的论点可能被用作对此论点进行反驳的前提。在这里,苏格拉底不受所提出之前提真理性的束缚,而由它推出     

论概念

1.知识分为(a)普遍承认的概念(太阳、月亮、智慧、灵魂)和(b)有待证明的概念(例如确证宇宙是由包含在另一球体中的球面组成的;或者是在时间中被创造的)。每个概念都必定有一个更普遍的概念在它之前存在着。但是,那个概念的最终建立却无需和在它之先的概念相关联。必然的存在和可能的存在就是这样的概念。这样的概念无需人们去构想一个包含着它们的东西,它们本身就是清楚、明白的自明概     

唯心主义和宗教的相似与区别

在阶级社会里,宗教和哲学唯心主义之间的相似和密切联系,是毋庸置疑的。无论是宗教还是哲学唯心主义,都是对世界的一种不正确的看法,都是一种错误的、歪曲的、颠倒的世界观。宗教和哲学唯心主义都反映这些和那些阶级的利益,它们过去和现在多半是阶级社会里的思想斗争中的同盟军。以上这些观点都是下述看法的依据,即在我们的文献里,充分而又广泛地提到宗教和哲学唯心主义是一些不同的现象,但就其本质来说,又是同一     

Transfer of matching-to-figure samples in the pigeon

Three pigeons were trained on a modified six-key matching-to-sample procedure. The third peck on the figure-sample key (which presented a bird, hand, face, beetle, rabbit, fish, flower, or red hue, as the sample) lighted only one comparison key. Every three additional pecks on the sample lighted another comparison key, up to a maximum of five keys. Pecks on keys of matching figures produced grain. Pecks on nonmatching keys (mismatches) turned off all lights on the comparison keys and repeated the trial. Three figures were used during acquisition. The birds learned to peck each sample until the matching comparison stimulus appeared on one of three comparison stimulus keys, and then to peck that key. Later, five novel stimuli, employed as both sample and comparison stimuli, and two additional matching keys were added. Each bird showed matching transfer to the novel samples. The data suggest that the birds may have learned the concept of figure matching rather than a series of two-component chains or discrete five-key discriminations.     

幼儿不同情绪状态对其智力操作的影响

本实验结果显示:1)在16至18个月的婴儿中,愉快和痛苦情绪对其问题解决的操作有不同的影响。愉快组被试比痛苦组被试的操作效果明显优越;体现在“直接抓取”、“注视”和“顺利获得”三种操作策略中。2)愉快和痛苦两种情绪的不同强度与操作效果之间的相关是不同的。愉快组显示为一种曲线相关,即过高或过低的情绪唤醒不如适中的唤醒水平使操作效果达到最优。痛苦组显示为一种直线相关,即痛苦强度越大,操作效果越差。     

The case for praxics

Since the early 1900s a variety of names has been proposed for the scientific study of behavior, but none has come into general use. "Praxics," a recent entry, is defensible on several grounds. "Behaviorism," on the other hand, is the name of a school of philosophy. Though praxics has roots in behaviorism, the term "behaviorism" should not be applied to praxics. Confusion between the science and the philosophy has retarded the growth of the science immeasurably. Its growth has also been impeded by its association with psychology, which is still primarily the study of mind. Efforts are underway to establish praxics as an independent field.     

Effects of concurrent schedules on human fixed-interval performance

Young adults performed a lever-pressing task for money on two schedules of reinforcement: concurrent fixed-interval 1 min—differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate 20-sec, and concurrent fixed-interval 1-min—fixed ratio 100 responses. All subjects were trained on both schedules. Fixed-interval performance concurrent with the differential reinforcement procedure was characterized by high constant rates with no post-reinforcement pauses. Fixed-interval performance concurrent with fixed ratio was characterized by low rates and lengthy post-reinforcement pauses. These results differ from those obtained in prior studies on the effects of conditioning history upon subsequent fixed-interval performance. The prior work, using non-concurrent procedures, had shown that fixed-interval performance following differential reinforcement of low rates was characterized by post-reinforcement pauses and low rates, while fixed-interval performance following fixed ratio exhibited high constant rates and no post-reinforcement pause. The present results suggest that alternative concurrent contingencies are another major determinant of human fixed-interval performance.     

The development of stimulus control with and without a lighted key

In two experiments, the effect of an illuminated response key on the acquisition of stimulus control by an airflow stimulus was assessed. In the first experiment, pigeons were given nondifferential training with airflow emerging from behind the response key in one of three conditions of illumination: trained to peck a lighted key, trained to peck an unlighted key with a houselight present, trained to peck a key in total darkness. After 10 days of training on a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement, all subjects were given a generalization test on airflow velocity. The gradients for subjects trained in the dark were sharp, while those for subjects trained in lighted conditions were shallow. In the second experiment, the effect of an irrelevant keylight on the acquisition of an airflow velocity discrimination was assessed. Two groups of pigeons were trained to discriminate two airflow velocities. One group was trained with a lighted response key and the other was trained to peck the response key in total darkness. The dark-trained subjects acquired the discrimination more rapidly. The results demonstrate that the acquisition of stimulus control by airflow with either a differential or nondifferential training procedure can be overshadowed by keylight.