Developmental analysis of the effects of reward on selected Wechsler subscales

The authors recently proposed that adverse effects of material rewards on Wechsler subscale performance may be the result of a reward-produced developmental regression. The present study further explores that idea through an attempt to replicate earlier findings with adults and to extend the inquiry to children. Selected Wechsler subscales were administered to 32 subjects at each of three ages (5, 10, and 18 years) under either reward or nonreward conditions. Subscales were chosen to represent both algorithmic and heuristic types of tasks. Reward and nonreward groups (8 males and 8 females per group at each age) were matched initially on age and ability. For adults, consistent with earlier findings, reward had an adverse effect on performance on the heuristic subscales and tended to facilitate performance on the algorithmic subscales. However, rewards generally had no effect at the fourth-grade level and had a reverse effect at the nursery school level, i.e., rewards facilitated heuristic and hampered algorithmic performance. These findings appear to be more consistent with an explanation based on developmental regression than on any available alternative mechanism.     

On the analyst's neutrality

It is by the application of the principle of neutrality, born of his respect for the essential otherness of the patient, that the analyst focuses the dyadic analytic work in the service of the patient's growing self-analytic capacity. Thus, the general principle of neutrality is distinguished from the technical tactic of abstinence, the latter being a specific function utilized to facilitate and foster analytic regression. Neutrality can be defined as it applies to the major subfunctions of the analyst's work ego. Perception of the patient's intrapsychic processes (both empathically and cognitively) requires a neutrality of appearance on the analyst's part in order to minimize the distortion of the unfolding transference neurosis. Integration and understanding of the patient's communications require mastery and neutralization of the analyst's own internal processes in order to minimize countertransferential distortions. Appropriate interpretive intervention requires neutrality of action, i.e., mastery of impulses related to power, neutralizing them into the service of the analytic work; tact is defined as a specific psychoanalytic function in this regard. Collaborative ignorance is examined as a specific instance of false neutrality. In this an analytic guise serves to mask a countertransferential conflict. Neutrality serves as an overriding technical principle, not an imperative for perfectionism . Factors intrinsic to the analytic process also influence the application of this principle.     

The Wundt Myths

Three myths about Wundt have been perpetuated in English language accounts of his work. First, he is said to have founded a Psychologisches Institut (a formally recognized psychological research laboratory) in 1879. Second, he is said to be the first psychologist, as distinct from the first contributor to psychology. Third, he is said to have formulated an elementarist psychology of mental content or experience. The first and second are trivial myths which in isolation would be scarcely worth a comment. The third is a gross misrepresentation which ignores the purposivist-voluntarist underlay of his experimental cognitive psychology and the humanistic, cultural concern of his Völkerpsychofogie.     

Another look at the effects of the system of multicultural pluralistic assessment

The purpose of this study was (a) to determine if a declassification occurs when estimated learning potential (ELP) is used in reevaluation of special education students and (b) to assess the effects of the use of ELP by multidisciplinary teams. Subjects included 107 black and 13 white students (83 males and 37 females) referred for reevaluation from classes for the mentally retarded. Data analysis consisted of determining the percentage of students who would be classified as mentally retarded according to the main criterion of (a) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) scores, or (b) ELP scores, or (c) multidisciplinary teams' placement. A chi-square test of independence indicated a significant difference between WISC-R and ELP scores; and between multidisciplinary teams' placement and ELP scores (p<.05). Students already in special education classes for the mentally retarded were not determined to be ineligible for services by multidisciplinary teams, even though 15% of the students would be ineligible for services according to ELP scores.     

Self-reported assessment practices of school psychologists: Implications for training and practice

This study reports the results of an investigation of the assessment views and practices of school psychologists in the United States. Results of the investigation indicated that respondents are predominantly behavioral and cognitive behavioral in orientation; spend most of their professional time in the public schools; and engage in a great deal of assessment. Behavioral assessment and projective testing occupies the greatest amount of their social-emotional assessment time. Behavioral interviewing is the most used behavioral technique, followed by behavioral observation, which is reportedly used by approximately one third of the respondents with from 41% to 100% of clients. Although most of the respondents report a preference for continuing to do approximately the same amount of the various social-emotional assessment activities as they are presently doing, very high percentages of respondents indicate that their use of behavioral assessment strategies would increase with development of published instrumentation, normative standards, and standardized out-of-setting behavioral procedures.     

Factor analysis of the Wechsler adult intelligence scale-revised (WAIS-R): An examination of the standardization sample

Orthogonal and oblique factor analyses were performed using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) standardization sample (Wechsler, 1981). Using objective criteria, it was decided to retain two factors. Evidence for a strong general intelligence (g) factor was found from both the orthogonal and oblique rotations. Whereas the verbal IQ provided an acceptable estimate of the Verbal Comprehension factor, a purer measure was found in the form of a Verbal Comprehension Deviation Quotient containing only the Information, Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Similarities subtests. The performance IQ was found to be an inadequate measure of the Perceptual Organization factor. A Perceptual Organization Deviation Quotient, containing only the Block Design and Object Assembly subtests, was recommended as an effective alternative. Analysis of the variance components for each subtest at every age level revealed that a substantial proportion of subtests at a wide range of age levels evidence either high or intermediate levels of specific variance. These results are discussed in terms of interpreting individual subtest scores and patterns. Each of the study's major findings are compared with prior work done with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (Wechsler, 1955).     

A temporal limit on the effect of future food on current performance in an analogue of foraging and welfare

Rats obtained access to food twice each 24-hour period. The first session was a work session in which food was available on a progressive-ratio schedule. During the second session, which occurred between 1 and 23 hours after the work session, food was freely available up to a fixed total intake each 24 hours. The situation resembled elements of several real world circumstances, including the choice between continuing to forage in a rapidly depleting patch and waiting for a better patch, and between working now and receiving a guaranteed income later. The purpose of the experiment was to explore the time period over which future access to reward could affect current responding. Contrary to what might be expected from recent theorizing, anticipation of future food delayed by an hour or more after the start of the work session had no effect on current performance. Food intake was high and constant during work sessions except for a prefeeding effect that occurred when the free session closely preceded the next day's work session. Also, an increase in the difficulty of the work schedule increased the amount of work and the maximum price paid for food as if the work session were the only time food was available. The results indicate the importance of considering temporal limits in theories that require animals to integrate input over time to determine the allocation of resources among alternatives.