Semantic associations and elaborative inference

In this article, a theoretical framework is proposed for the inference processes that occur during reading. According to the framework, inferences can vary in the degree to which they are encoded. This notion is supported by three experiments in this article that show that degree of encoding can depend on the amount of semantic-associative information available to support the inference processes. In the experiments, test words that express possible inferences from texts are presented for recognition. When testing is delayed, with other texts and test items intervening between a text and its test word, performance depends on the amount of semantic-associative information in the text. If the inferences represented by the test words are not supported by semantic associates in the text, they appear to be only minimally encoded (replicating McKoon & Ratcliff, 1986), but if they are supported by semantic associates, they are strongly encoded. With immediate testing, only 250 ms after the text, performance is shown to depend on semantic-associative information, not on textual information. This suggests that it is the fast availability of semantic information that allows it to support inference processes.     

Chest pain without coronary artery disease: An exploratory comparison with panic disorder

Recent reports have indicated similarities between patients with persistent chest pain of nonorganic origin and patients with panic disorder. In order to explore this association further, we administered a structured interview and three self-report measures (State-Trait Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory, and SCL90-R) to three subject groups: (1) a sample with persistent chest pain (CP; n=14) who had been screened and found to have normal coronary arteries, (2) a sample of patients with panic disorder (PD; n=14), and (3) a sample of matched normals (n=14). CP patients were considered to be free of coronary artery disease (CAD) following normal cardiac catheterization and/or normal thallium stress tests and were not diagnosed initially with panic disorder. PD patients were diagnosed with a standardized psychiatric interview and were free of organic causes of panic. Using an exploratory data analytic approach, the results indicated that both CP and PD samples reported increased levels of state and trait anxiety (p <.0001), depression (p <.01), and somatization (p <.0001) compared with normals. CP patients differed from PD patients in their less frequent use of anxiolytic medication (p <.01) and lower levels of reported panic anxiety and phobic avoidance (p <.0001). These data suggest that persistent chest pain in the absence of CAD shares some features with panic disorder, yet differs from panic in key ways as well. The results are discussed in light of the role of anxiety in contributing to symptom labeling.This research was supported by Grant 86G-491 from the American Heart Association, Texas Affiliate, to J.G.B. H.T. is the recipient of USPHS Research Career Development Award K04-HL-0122246.     

Assessing the relationship of Type A beliefs to cardiovascular disease risk and psychosocial distress

Investigators have begun to take a multimodal approach to the assessment and treatment of psychosocial risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). For instance, cognitive responses have become the focus of contemporary research along with continued examination of overt Type A behaviors. Price (1982) has outlined a set of beliefs purportedly associated with Type A behavior and subsequent CVD risk. The current study examines the validity of this belief set as represented by a newly developed measure, the Type A Cognitive Questionnaire (TACQ). Subjects were 221 employed adults participating in a worksite CVD risk reduction program. They completed the TACQ as part of a pretreatment CVD risk screening protocol. As hypothesized, TACQ scores were significantly associated with Type A behavior, hostility, physiological mediators of CVD, and psychosocial distress. Discussion addresses continued refinement of the Type A belief construct.     

Self-Involving Versus Self-Disclosing Counselor Statements During an Initial Interview

This study examined the hypothesis that positive self-involving and self-disclosing counselor responses would be rated more favorably by subjects than negative self-involving and self-disclosing counselor responses (Andersen & Anderson, 1985). The differential effectiveness of the counselor responses during the initial interview was discussed, and some implications of the findings for counseling practice were considered.     

Age differences in memory performance and memory ratings as measured in a sample survey

Age differences in memory performance were studied in a probability sample of a cross-section of 1,491 adults living in the Detroit metropolitan area, with an oversample of those age 60 and older. Both a recall and a recognition measure were adapted to the survey context by querying respondents about the nature of the questions asked in an immediately preceding interview. Subjective memory assessment was also measured, using global memory ratings performed by the respondent, his or her spouse, and the interviewer. A clear, age-related decline in memory performance was found in this population sample. Subjective memory assessment also declined across age groups, but the relation was weaker. On the basis of multiple regression analyses of the recognition measure and the respondent's self-rated memory, which were judged to have the best measurement qualities, a substantial part of these age differences can be accounted for by differences in sociodemographic composition between age groups, by cognitive functioning and physical health.     

Age deficits in recall under optimal study conditions

Young and older adults studied lists of words under both standard and optimal study conditions for subsequent free recall. Under optimal conditions, the participants studied each word for as long as they wished, were allowed to take notes, and were encouraged to actively use whatever strategies they thought would maximize recall. Both age groups recalled more words under optimal study conditions than under standard conditions, but the improvement was greater for the young adults. This increase in the age-related recall deficit was not due to differences in study time. The results suggest that standard laboratory memory tasks do not overestimate the memory deficits of older adults because of a failure to provide either optimal learning conditions or sufficient study time.     

A perceived control intervention for at-risk older adults

Models of event causation and affective processes were used to design an experimental intervention for older adults. Ss were 2 at-risk populations, recently disabled and recently bereaved, each with matched nonrisk controls. Ss were randomly assigned to a placebo-contact group, a no-contact control group, or a 4-session, 10-week intervention focused on enhancing perceived control. Dependent variables assessed were personal mastery, psychological well-being and distress, positive and negative affect, and measures of daily events and activities. The intervention was nested within a 16-month longitudinal assessment of stress and adaptation processes in a large sample of community residents. The intervention had mixed effects on reports of personal mastery, but it significantly increased engagement in desirable activities and significantly decreased psychological distress and negative affect. Effects tended to be short-lived, however. Effects of the intervention tended to be particularly significant for the disabled group.     

Responding to Student or Teacher Death: Preplanning Crisis Intervention

Crisis caused by the sudden death of a student or teacher can be averted or diminished via a preplanned team intervention approach. The guidelines and strategies of a field-proven intervention program are described.     

Age differences in the acculturation process

Age differences were assessed in a conceptual model that seeks to explain how acculturation affects psychological well-being among Mexican Americans. The data were from a national probability sample of 859 persons of Mexican decent. It was hypothesized that low acculturation creates financial stress. Moreover, low acculturation and financial stress were in turn predicted to erode feelings of personal control and self-esteem. Finally, diminished feelings of control and low self-esteem were hypothesized to exert a negative impact on psychological well-being. When data from respondents of all ages was assessed, empirical support was found for all of the hypotheses except the linkage between acculturation and financial stress. However, few age differences emerged in the model. The authors conclude that older Mexican Americans may not be more vulnerable to the stressors associated with acculturation.     

Age, exercise, and coding performance

We investigated the effects of exercise on the coding performance of young and older subjects. Hypotheses were tested that exercise either facilitates spatial localization or reduces susceptibility to distraction in older subjects. In a balanced design, we administered Digit Symbol and Symbol Digit coding tasks to exercisers and nonexercisers at two age levels under conditions of low or high within-task interference. The findings showed higher performance by the exercisers than by the nonexercisers only at the older age level and only with the Symbol Digit task. These findings support the hypothesis that exercise compensates for a loss of spatial localization skills with age. We found no evidence that susceptibility to distraction either increased with age or was affected by chronic exercise.