N=1: An alternative research strategy for school psychologists

Single subject (N=1) research strategies deserve increased emphasis in the training of school psychologists. Single subject methodology has demonstrated credibility in research and in monitoring effects of professional interventions, but school psychology programs have typically not provided systematic training in this area. This paper suggests that N=1 research paradigms offer a promising supplement and, in some cases, an alternative to traditional large N between group strategies in school-based research; it reviews some examples of N=1 research design and methodology; it discusses some advantages and limitations of N=1 research strategies; and it argues that school psychology training programs must train graduate students in N=1 research and encourage this form of research methodology in practice.     

Electric shock produced drinking in the squirrel monkey.

Squirrel monkeys were periodically exposed to brief electric tail shocks in a test environment containing a rubber hose, response lever, and a water spout. Shock delivery produced preshock lever pressing and postshock hose biting. Additionally, all subjects displayed licking responses following postshock biting-attack episodes. Further experiments showed that licking was: (1) influenced by hours of water deprivation; (2) drinking behavior; (3) the direct result of shock delivery; and (4) developed spontaneously in naive subjects with or without opportunities for hose biting or lever pressing. Removing the opportunity to attack increased postshock drinking. A noxious environmental stimulus that causes aggression can also produce drinking.     

The impact of exposure to nontraditional vocational role models on the vocational role preferences of five-year-old children

During a two-week period, 17 kindergarten children in an experimental group were exposed to nontraditional role models and curricular materials and a control group, consisting of 22 kindergarten children, was exposed to a curriculum unrelated to vocational or sex roles. A comparison of the pretest and posttest scores of the two groups, using a t-test for correlated means, indicated that neither group made a significant change in their vocational role preferences. The data indicated that following the treatment, the experimental females were slightly less traditional (p < .24) while the experimental males were more traditional (p < .09). These findings are related to developmental and socialization factors. Implications for further research and for family life education are presented.     

An illusion of auditory saltation similar to the cutaneous "rabbit"

Trains of brief clicks produced successively at 3 points in a horizontal array were not localized accurately. Observers reported clicks occurring in succession across the spaces between sources as well as at the sources themselves. The illusion is functionally related to interstimulus interval, number of clicks per speaker, and regularity of pulsing. It appears similar to Geldard and Sherrick's cutaneous "rabbit" illusion.     

Predictive value of cognitive variables for the information utilization process

Sequential predictive behaviour is used to analyse human problem solving. The most predictive and discriminative variables regarding the observable information reducing phases of the problem solving process are variables of cognitive complexity. The same holds for variables of cognitive flexibility regarding the information generating phase. Empirical evidence with respect to the thereby occurring interaction between the heuristic and epistemic part of the cognitive structure is yielded.     

The community mental health center management game: Teaching administrative skills by means of computer simulation

Clinical training in psychology rarely includes the opportunity for students to exercise managerial responsibility for a functioning human service organization. Nevertheless, many clinicians are called upon to assume such decision-making duties, despite their lack of administrative training. This study examines the feasibility of using a computer model of a typical Community Mental Health Center (CMHC) as a training device, permitting clinical students to “manage” a complex social agency over a course of many months of simulated time. The system provides a valuable and interesting supplement to the usual training materials in psychology programs.     

A biphasic 60-Hz synchronizer circuit for the recording of visually evoked responses in high-noise environments

A simple synchronizer clock circuit is described that aids in the rejection of 60-Hz noise from evoked potential measurements.     

The role of structural redundancy in the perception of visual targets

Most visual images contain “gross shapes” which are highly correlated with less perceptable “details,” e.g., the gross outline of a head and details such as eyes, ears, etc. The role of such structural redundancy in perception is considered both from a “syntactical” and “spatial-frequency” view of structure. An experiment is reported and evaluated in terms of a simple mathematical model which allows one to isolate the influence of several factors in the perceptual process, particularly the observer’s actual sensitivity to specific details and the influence of the redundant (correlated) information in “higher order forms,” The basic idea is that one decides whether a particular (target) detail is present in a briefly presented image by integrating impressions from various parts of the image in a weighted manner, with the weights determined by redundant information in “higher order forms.” Furthermore, the results are generally consistent with the notion that an increase in the number of attended letters does not reduce the information extracted from each letter.     

Low-cost equipment for schedule generation I: Fixed- and random-ratio schedules

The use of complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology to produce fixed-ratio and random-ratio schedules is described. Such a technology implies several advantages over traditional methods of construction, especially with respect to cost and complexity. Suitable interfaces for linking with everyday laboratory equipment are also described.