More on concurrent interval-ratio schedules: a replication and review.

It has been suggested that the failure to maximize reinforcement on concurrent variable-interval, variable-ratio schedules may be misleading. Inasmuch as response costs are not directly measured, it is possible that subjects are optimally balancing the benefits of reinforcement against the costs of responding. To evaluate this hypothesis, pigeons were tested in a procedure in which interval and ratio schedules had equal response costs. On a concurrent variable time (VT), variable ratio-time (VRT) schedule, the VT schedule runs throughout the session and the VRT schedule is controlled by responses to a changeover key that switches from one schedule to the other. Reinforcement is presented independent of response. This schedule retains the essential features of concurrent VI VR, but eliminates differential response costs for the two alternatives. It therefore also eliminates at least one significant ambiguity about the reinforcement maximizing performance. Pigeons did not maximize rate of reinforcement on this procedure. Instead, their times spent on the alternative schedules matched the relative rates of reinforcement, even when schedule parameters were such that matching earned the lowest possible overall rate of reinforcement. It was further shown that the observed matching was not a procedural artifact arising from the constraints built into the schedule.     

Electromyographic activity over facial muscle regions can differentiate the valence and intensity of affective reactions

Physiological measures have traditionally been viewed in social psychology as useful only in assessing general arousal and therefore as incapable of distinguishing between positive and negative affective states. This view is challenged in the present report. Sixteen subjects in a pilot study were exposed briefly to slides and tones that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity differentiated both the valence and intensity of the affective reaction. Moreover, independent judges were unable to determine from viewing videotapes of the subjects' facial displays whether a positive or negative stimulus had been presented or whether a mildly or moderately intense stimulus had been presented. In the full experiment, 28 subjects briefly viewed slides of scenes that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Again, EMG activity over the brow (corrugator supercilia), eye (orbicularis oculi), and cheek (zygomatic major) muscle regions differentiated the pleasantness and intensity of individuals' affective reactions to the visual stimuli even though visual inspection of the videotapes again indicated that expressions of emotion were not apparent. These results suggest that gradients of EMG activity over the muscles of facial expression can provide objective and continuous probes of affective processes that are too subtle or fleeting to evoke expressions observable under normal conditions of social interaction.     

The circumplexity of Leary's Interpersonal Circle: a multidimensional scaling perspective

To investigate the circulant structure of the 16 scales comprising the Interpersonal Checklist (ICL; Laforge & Suczek, 1955), intercorrelation matrices for mate and female undergraduate ICL scores were subjected to multidimentional scaling analysis. Results showed the following: (a) while the 16 ICL scales fall in a rough circular array, measurement gaps exist in the friendly-dominant and hostile-submissive quadrants; (b) sixteenths A-B-P and L-M-N were misarranged; (c) stress coefficients for a three-dimensional solution were in an acceptable range. Implications of these findings for future research and anchoring of the ICL to Kiesler's (1983) "1982 Interpersonal Circle" are discussed.     

The Separation-Individuation Test of Adolescence

The procedures undergone to establish the validity of the Separation- Individuation Test of Adolescence (SITA) are described. The test consists of six scales designed to measure key dimensions of adolescent separation-individuation. Each scale was subjected to three stages of validation: theoretical-substantive, internal-structural, and external-criterion. The results of data with 305 adolescents are reported. Although particular modifications from the original form are planned, appreciative levels of validity were established for the SITA's various scales.     

An examination of rapid positioning movements with spatiotemporal constraints

Unidirectional positioning movements with spatiotemporal constraints were examined as a test of impulse-timing theory (Schmidt, 1976; 1980; Wallace, 1981). Movements were examined at the kinematic, kinetic, and neuromuscular levels in three experiments. In the first experiment, displacement was held constant while five different movement times were examined. Both amplitudes and durations of the EMG and the kinetic variables were related to movement time. The results generally support the impulse-timing model. In the second experiment, movements were performed to a target at each of four distances in a constant movement time. EMG and force amplitudes and, unexpectedly, accelerative-force duration were modulated to achieve changes in displacement when movement time was constant. In the third experiment, movement time and displacement were simultaneously varied resulting in four conditions with equal average velocities. The results of this experiment were not as clear and exhibited individual differences. EMG duration did not always vary with changes in movement time. The results of all three experiments could not be adequately accounted for by the impulse-timing model.     

The impact of extended practice on rate of mental rotation

9-, 13-, and 20-year-olds were tested on 3840 trials of a mental rotation task in which they judged if pairs of stimuli presented in different orientations were identical or mirror images. Response time increased linearly as a function of the difference in orientation of the stimuli, and the slope of this function was used to estimate rate of mental rotation. At all ages, mental rotation became faster over trials. Age differences in rate of mental rotation were eliminated after approximately 1500 trials. At all ages the influence of practice was well characterized by hyperbolic and power functions. Furthermore, children's and adolescents' data were well fit by hyperbolic and power functions in which most of the parameters of those functions were constrained to adults' values. These results are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms underlying the impact of practice.     

Latency and frequency reports to the Necker cube illusion: effects of hypnotic susceptibility and mental arithmetic

An experiment (N = 32) was conducted to assess latency of first apparent reversal (AR) and AR frequency while observing the Necker cube illusion. Subjects who were either high in hypnotic susceptibility (susceptibles) or low in hypnotic susceptibility (resistant subjects) observed the cube either while performing or not performing mental addition problems. Susceptibles reported perceiving the first AR more quickly and a greater frequency of ARs than did resistant subjects. Also, latency of the first AR was negatively correlated with AR frequency. These results were interpreted in terms of the ability of susceptibles to allocate concentrative or selective attention in a manner that was conducive to faster performance, when faced with competing tasks.     

Type A behavior pattern and the judgment of control

We investigated the control judgments of Type A and B actors and observers after five tasks in which actual response-outcome contingency and success were varied systematically. Results indicated that, overall, actors provided higher control judgments than did observers, and both actual contingency and success influenced judged control. Type A and B actors did not differ in their self-perceptions of control but observers judged the Type A actors to have exerted more control than the Type B actors, primarily on positive contingency tasks. These findings suggest that Type As, because of their more active, dynamic style, may be credited by observers with more control or competence than is warranted. By contrast, the more relaxed style of the Type B may lead to lower than warranted evaluations of control or competence. Lastly, Type As were found to learn the contingencies better than Type Bs with important implications for the actual exercise of control.