The role of exploration in win-shift and win-stay performance on a radial maze

Win-shift spatial memory tasks in a radial maze reinforce animals for avoiding previously visited rewarded arms; win-stay tasks reinforce them for returning to those arms. Win-shift tasks have generally been found much easier to perform, and this may be explained either in terms of foraging models which postulate avoidance of locations where food has been found, or in terms of the predominance of spontaneous alternation (exploration). Experiment 1 examined spontaneous alternation behavior in the radial maze as a function of whether the first visit to an arm had been rewarded or not, and showed that alternation was more probable after nonreward than after reward in both hungry and thirsty rats (a result which conflicts with the foraging account of the win-shift superiority). Experiment 2 replicated the finding that win-stay discrimination performance was inferior to win-shift. A manipulation (lengthening the delay between initial and test choices) which weakens spontaneous alternation, reduced, but did not reverse, the win-shift superiority. In Experiment 3, in order to eliminate the influence of spontaneous alternation, versions of the win-stay and win-shift tasks were devised in which, unlike the original task, all arms were familiar at the choice trial. Under those conditions win-stay was performed better than win-shift. It is concluded that spontaneous alternation plays a major role in many spatial memory tasks, and that the results can best be accounted for by combining principles of exploration and simple associative learning, without recourse to foraging models.     

Understanding the mind as an active information processor: do young children have a "copy theory of mind"?

Most 4-, but no 3-year-olds, were able to understand the mind's active role in evaluating the truth of verbal information. They appreciated that a statement, whether true or false, will be disbelieved if the listener has existing beliefs to the contrary and that it will be believed if no such beliefs exist. Four- and 5-year-olds were equally competent in understanding the need for interpretation of pictorial material. They realized that an uninitiated person cannot make sense of a "droodle", which in itself is an uninterpretable section of a larger meaningful drawing. We discuss the impact of our findings on the question of whether children at this age entertain a copy theory of mind.     

Linguistic Basicness and Colour Information Processing

Berlin and Kay's notion of basicness was defined by a combination of linguistic and psychological criteria, but they suggested that the psychological criteria might be extended. The experiments reported here were designed to explore a possible extension by searching for perceptual effects of basicness. Russian speakers who have two basic terms for the blue region of colour space were compared with English speakers who have only one basic term for the same region on two perceptual tasks. The first two experiments sought for greater Stroop interference for the Russians than for the English for the critical “blue” stimuli, and the third experiment sought greater perceptual differentiation for the Russians in the blue region. All experiments clearly replicated standard findings, but all singularly failed to find the predicted differences between the two groups. It is argued that whilst the results are consistent with there being no psychological effect of basicness, it is necessary to search for possible effects in other domains, such as recognition memory, before accepting this conclusion.     

Book reviews and notes

GENERAL.

LA REVANCHE DE DIEU. By Gilles Kepel. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1991. 283pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 2–02–012929–9.

DEFENDERS OF GOD: THE FUNDAMENTALIST REVOLT AGAINST THE MODERN AGE. By Bruce B. Lawrence. London: I.B. Tauris, 1990. 306pp. Hb. n.p. ISBN 1–85043–288–0.

ISLAM AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD. By G.W. Choudhury. London: Indus Thames Publishers Ltd., 1990. 227pp. Hb. £15.00. ISBN 1–85555–000–8.

TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING THE QUR'AN. VOL.III, SURAHS 7–9. By Sayyid Abul a'la Mawdudi. Translated and edited by Zafar Ishaq Ansari. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1990/1411. 328pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 0–86037–205–7.

AL‐GHAZALI: INVOCATIONS AND SUPPLICATIONS: KITAB AL‐ADHKAR WA'L‐DA'AWAT: BOOK IX OF THE REVIVAL OF THE RELIGIOUS SCIENCES: IHYA’ ‘ULUM AL‐DIN. Translated with an Introduction and Notes by K. Nakamura. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1990. 131pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 0–946621–14–4.

TODAY'S PROBLEMS, TOMORROW'S SOLUTIONS: THE FUTURE STRUCTURE OF MUSLIM SOCIETIES. By Abdullah Omar Naseef. London and New York: Mansell, 1988. 180pp. Hb. £30.00. ISBN 0–7201–1991‐X.

AN EARLY CRESCENT: THE FUTURE OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN ISLAM. Edited by Ziauddin Sardar. London and New York: Mansell, 1989. 251pp. Hb. £30.00. ISBN 0–7201–2005–5.

BEYOND FRONTIERS: ISLAM AND CONTEMPORAY NEEDS. Edited by Merryl Wyn Davies and Adnan Khalil Pasha. London and New York: Mansell, 1989. 216pp. Hb. £30.00. ISBN 0–7201–2039‐X.

AL‐KASIM B. IBRAHIM ON THE PROOF OF GOD'S EXISTENCE: KITA AL‐DALI AL‐KABIR. Edited by Binyamin Abrahamov. Islamic Philosophy and Theology Series, Vol.V. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990. 201pp. Hb. DFL110.00 US$55.00. ISBN 90–04–08985–3.

ISLAM AND THE CULTURAL ACCOMMODATION OF SOCIAL CHANGE. By Bassam Tibi. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. 1990. 272pp. Hb. £24.95. ISBN 0–8133–0917–4.

BAHA’ I WALAD: GRUNDZÜGE SEINES LEBENS UND SEINER MYSTIK. By FRITZ MEIER. Acta Iranica. Textes et Mémoires, vol.14. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989. 484pp. Hb. DF200, US$100. ISBN 90–6831–094–1.

IBN RUSHD (AVERROES). By Dominique Urvoy. Arabic Thought and Culture Series. London: Routledge, 1991. 156pp. Pb. £10.99. ISBN 0–415–05567–9.

ISLAM: THE FEAR AND THE HOPE. By Habib Boulares. London: Zed Books, 1990. 144pp. Pb. £8.95; $15.00. ISBN 0–86232–945–0.

IBN KHALDUN. By Aziz al‐Azmeh. London: Routledge, 1990. 176pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 0–415–03598–8.

REGIONAL.

Africa.

ZANZIBAR UNDER COLONIAL RULE. Edited by Abdul Sheriff and ed Ferguson. Eastern African Studies: London: James Curry, 1991. 278pp. Pb. £9.95. ISBN 0–85255–080–4.

ISLAM ET SOCIETES AU SUD DU SAHARA. Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Paris. No.4, November 1990. ISSN 0084–7685.

TURABI'S REVOLUTION: ISLAM AND POWER IN SUDAN. By Abdelwahab el‐Affendi. London: Grey Seal Books, 1991. xvi + 209pp. Hb. n.p. ISBN 1–85640–004–2.

FAITH OF OUR FATHERS: STUDIES ON RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN SUB‐SAHARAN AFRICA. By Gerrie Ter Haar. Utrecht: Faculteit der Godgeleerdheid, Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht, 1990. 173pp. Pb. DFI. 10.00. ISBN 90–72235–13–4.

THE GUNNY SACK: AFRICA'S ANSWER TO ‘MIDNIGHT'S CHILDREN’. By M.G. Vassanji. Oxford: Heinemann International, 1989. 276pp. Pb. £4.95; $7.95. ISBN 0–435–90544–9.

NAVIGATION OF A RAINMAKER: AN APOCALYPTIC VISION OF WAR‐TORN AFRICA. By Jamal Mahjoub. Oxford: Heinemann International, 1989. 184pp. Pb. £4.95; $7.95. ISBN 0–435–90560–0.

Asia.

MUSLIM WOMEN IN INDIA: POLITICAL AND PRIVATE REALITIES. By SHAHIDA Lateef. London: Zed books, 1990. 238pp. Pb. £10.95; $16.95. ISBN 0–86232–955–8.

THE GIFT OF A VIRGIN: WOMEN, MARRIAGE AND RITUAL IN A BENGALI SOCIETY. By Lina M. Fruzzetti. Oxford: OUP, 1990. 178pp. Pb. £3.95. ISBN 0–19–56200–1.

SAINTS, GODDESSES AND KINGS: MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS IN SOUTH INDIAN SOCIETY, 1700–1900. By Susan Bayly. Cambridge: CUP, 1989. 502pp. Hb. £40.00. US$59.50. ISBN 0–521–37201–1.

Europe.

ISLAM IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION TEXTBOOKS IN EUROPE. By Abdoldjavad Falaturi. Köln: Islamische Wissenschaftliche Akademie, 1990. 106pp. Pb. n.p. IBN 3–89108–005–0.

MUSLIM THOUGHTS FOR TEACHERS AND TEXTBOOKS AUTHORS. By Abdoldjavad Falaturi. Köln: Islamische Wissenschaftliche Akademie. 92pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 3–89108–006–9.

RELIGION, STATE AND SOCIETY IN MODERN BRITAIN. Edited by Paul Badham. Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1989. 401pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 0–88946–832‐X.

POLITICAL PARTIES AND DEMOCRACY IN TURKEY. Edited by Metin Hepper and Jacob m. Landau. London & New York: Tauris, 1991. 225pp. Hb. £29.95. ISBN 1–85043–300–3.

EGYPT AND THE CRISIS OF ISLAM. By Zahia Ragheb Dajani. American University Studies, Series IX, History, Vol.56. New York: Peter Lang, 1990. ix + 255pp. Hb. £29.00. ISBN 0–8204–1060–8.

ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM IN EGYPTIAN POLITICS. By Barry Rubin. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990. 178pp. Hb. £35.00.0 ISBN 0–333–54374–2.

SADAT AND AFTER: STRUGGLES FOR EGYPT'S POLITICAL SOUL. By Raymond William Baker. London: Tauris, 1990. 365pp. Pb. £26.50. ISBN 1–85043–216–3.

A HISTORY OF THE ARAB PEOPLES. By Albert Hourani. London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1991. 551pp. Hb. £25.00. ISBN 0–571–13378–9.

TANZIMAT AL‐AHWAL AL‐SHAKSIYYA (PERSONAL STATUS LAW). Limassol: Middle East Council of Churches, 1990.394pp. Pb. n.p. (Arabic).

CAIRO UNIVERSITY AND THE MAKING OF MODERN EGYPT. By Donald Malcolm Reid. Cambridge: CUP, 1990. 296pp. Hb. £32.50; US$54.50. ISBN 0–521–36641–0.

EGYPT UNDER MUBARAK. Edited by CHARLES Tripp and ROGER OWEN. London: Routledge, 1989. 191pp. Hb. £35.00. ISBN 0–415–03887–1.

CITIZENS APART: A PORTRAIT OF THE PALESTINIANS IN ISRAEL. By Amina Minns and Nadia Hijab. London: I.B. Tauris, 1990. 210pp. Hb. n.p. ISBN 1–85043–204‐X.

RELIGIOUS RADICALISM AND POLITICS IN THE MIDDLE EAST. By Emmanuel Sivan and Menachem Friedman. New York: State University of New York Press, 1990. 244pp. P.b. $16.95. ISBN 2–7914–0158–8. (Hb), 0–7914–0159–6 (Pb).

VILLES AU LEVANT: HOMMAGE A ANDRE RAYMOND. Edited by Pierre‐Robert Baduel. Revue du Monde Musulman et de la Méditer‐ranée, no.55/56. Aix‐en‐Provence: Edisud, 1990. 307pp. Pb. FF.160.00. ISBN 2–85744–471–0.

THE NEAR EAST SINCE THE FIRST WORLD WAR. By M.E. Yapp. London and New York: Longman, 1991. 526pp. Pb. £14.95. ISBN 0–582–49499–0.

RECOGNIZING ISLAM: RELIGION AND SOCIETY IN THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST. By M. GILSENAN. London: I.B. Tauris, 1990. 288pp. Pb. £5.95. IBN 1–85043–297‐X.

KUWAIT AND IRAQ: HISTORICAL CLAIMS AND TERRITORIAL DISPUTES. By Richard Schofield. London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1991. 134pp. + annexes. Pb. £7.50 + postage. ISBN 0–905031–35–0.

HISTORY AND POLITICS IN ELEVENTH‐CENTURY BAGHDAD. By George Makdisi. Aldershot: Variorum, 1990. I‐IX + addenda and index. Hb. £42.50. ISBN 0–86078–289–1.

EGYPT: MOULIDS, SAINTS, SUFIS. By Nicholaas H. Biegman. London: Kegan Paul International, 1991. 175pp. Hb. £25.00. ISBN 0–7103–0415–3.

AN A TO Z OF THE MIDDLE EAST. By Alain Gresh and Dominique Vidal. London: Zed Books, 1990. 262 pp. Pb. £9.95; $15.00. ISBN 0–86232–881–0.

MY JERUSALEM: TWELVE WALKS IN THE WORLD'S HOLIEST CITY. By Teddy Kollek and Shulamith Eisner. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990. 160pp. Hb. £14.95. ISBN 0–297–79697–6.

CHRISTIAN‐MUSLIM RELATIONS.

EARLY EGYPTIAN CHRISTIANITY FROM ITS ORIGINS TO 451 C.E. By C.W. GRIGGS. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990. 276pp. Hb. DFI.140; U.S.$70. ISBN 90–04–09159–9.

COPTS AND MUSLIMS IN EGYPT: A STUDY ON HARMONY AND HOSTILITY. By S.M. Solihin. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1991. 120pp. Pb. n.p. ISBN 0–86037–207–3.

MY NEIGHBOUR IS MUSLIM. A HANDBOOK FOR REFORMED CHURCHES. Edited by John Knox International Reformed Centre, Geneva. Geneva: John Knox International Reformed Centre, 1990. 112pp. Pb. Sfr.10.00, DM12.00, $8.00, FF40.00.

ENCOUNTER BETWEEN CHRISTIANS AND MUSLIMS. Edited by Evangelisches Missionswerk, EMW. Offprint from Mission Studies. Vol. VIII 1, 15, 1991. 48pp.

ISLAMIC SPAIN 1250–1500. By L.P. Harvey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990; 369pp. Pb. £31.95, US$45.95. ISBN 0–226–31960–1.

MUSLIMS UNDER LATIN RULE 1100–1300. Edited by James M. Powell. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. 221pp. Hb. £29.95. ISBN 0–691–05586–6.

GOTTES IST DER ORIENT, GOTTES IST DER OKZIDENT: FESTSCHRIFT FÜR ABDOLJAVAD FALATURI ZUM 65. GEBURT‐STAG. Hrsg. Udo Tworuschka. Kölner Veröffentlichungen zur Religionsgeschichte. Bd. 21. Köln, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1991. 650pp. Hb. n.p. ISBN 3–412–03790–7.     

Effects of intergroup contact and relative gratification vs. deprivation on prejudice on both sides of the U.S./Mexico status divide

A study in the U.S.–Mexican intergroup context examined how collective relative gratification (RG) versus deprivation affects the relationship between intergroup contact and interpersonal closeness and subtle prejudice towards an out-group. Participants were Mexican university students in Mexico (N = 239) and non-Mexican students in California (N = 90). As predicted, Mexicans experienced less gratification/higher relative deprivation (RD), and low quality intergroup contact and expressed lower interpersonal closeness and higher subtle prejudice than U.S. Americans. Differences between countries were larger amongst participants reporting higher RD. Second-stage moderated mediation analysis showed that the mediating effects of contact between country and interpersonal closeness and subtle prejudice, respectively, were larger amongst participants who felt relatively gratified than those who felt relatively deprived. These findings underline the importance of recognizing the moderating effect of differences in the RG versus RD levels of minority and majority groups when anticipating the potential benefits of intergroup contact for prejudice reduction.     

Prevalence and correlates of antisocial behaviors among three ethnic groups

Using data from the MECA Study, this report examines the prevalence of Conduct Disorder (CD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and various levels of antisocial behavior and their correlates among three ethnic groups: Hispanics, subdivided into Island Puerto Ricans and Mainland Hispanics; African Americans; and Mainland Non-Hispanic, Non-African Americans. Correlates considered include stressful life events, birth defects, low birth weight, learning difficulties, teen mothers, family environment, marital adjustment, social competence, parental monitoring, and family relationships. Logistic regression was used to determine the association of outcomes with individual correlates and of interaction terms with ethnicity. Differences between adjusted rates and observed rates of disorders and levels of antisocial behaviors are compared to estimate the extent to which each correlate explains the group differences in rates. Island Puerto Ricans had a lower prevalence of CD, ODD, and various levels of antisocial behavior than mainland Hispanics, African Americans, and non-Hispanic Whites. The lower prevalence appears to be associated with differences in the extent to which a number of these correlates are found on the island, the most salient being better family relations between the target children and their parents and siblings.     

Socially desirable responding and impression management in the endorsement of love styles.

In 2 experiments, the researcher investigated the social desirability of different love styles (Eros, Ludus, Storge, Pragma, Mania, and Agape). In Experiment 1, the Marlowe-Crowne measure of social desirability (D. P. Crowne & D. Marlowe, 1960) was correlated negatively with possessive, dependent (Mania) love styles in both men and women. In men, social desirability was correlated positively with romantic, passionate love (Eros) and game-playing love (Ludus), but negatively with all-giving, selfless love (Agape). In women, social desirability was correlated positively with Agape, but negatively with Ludus. In Experiment 2, the researcher replicated these findings using an impression management manipulation (good, bad, and honest responding). The gender differences in social desirability of different love styles are explained in terms of traditional and nontraditional gender role socialization.     

Spiritual development in church schools—a survey of Welsh head teachers’ perceptions

A questionnaire to assess views about spiritual development was completed by 112 of the 174 head teachers of church primary schools in Wales. The findings indicated that despite the seemingly ambiguous nature of the term ‘spiritual development’, head teachers had clear views about its meaning. While most head teachers emphasised the need for pupils to engage in their own personal spiritual search, their views differed in the extent to which they felt that promoting spiritual development meant encouraging pupils to adopt Christian beliefs. While the age and sex of head teachers was found to have no significant impact on their views; and the location and category of the school for which head teachers were responsible had only a limited impact on their view, the language of the school and the religiosity of the head teacher had a considerable impact on views regarding these matters.