Linguistic Convergence to Observed Versus Expected Behavior in an Alien-Language Map Task

Individuals shift their language to converge with interlocutors. Recent work has suggested that convergence can target not only observed but also expected linguistic behavior, cued by social information. However, it remains uncertain how expectations and observed behavior interact, particularly when they contradict each other. We investigated this using a cooperative map task experiment, in which pairs of participants communicated online by typing messages to each other in a miniature “alien” language that exhibited variation between alien species. The overall task comprised three phases, in each of which participants were told that they would be paired with a different partner. One member of the pair was given explicit linguistic expectations in each phase, while the software controlled whether or not observed behavior from their partner would be consistent or inconsistent with these expectations. The other participant was given no such expectations, allowing us to control for the role of expectation. Participants converged to both observed and expected linguistic behavior, and convergence was boosted when observation and expectation were aligned. When expected and observed behavior were misaligned, participants updated their expectations, though convergence levels did not drop. Furthermore, participants generalized what they learned about one partner to apparent novel partners of the same alien species. We also discuss individual variation in convergence patterns and the lack of a relationship between linguistic convergence and success at the map task. Findings are consistent with observations outside the laboratory that language users converge toward expected linguistic behavior. They also have broader implications for understanding linguistic accommodation and the influence of social information on linguistic processing and production.     

Self-Construal and Forgiveness Revisited: Replication and Extension

Evidence suggests that people who have greater interdependent self-construal forgive others more often because they are motivated to forgive to maintain the relationship. Furthermore, such forgiveness might lead to greater emotional well-being. In this study, we examined the relationship between interdependent self-construal and (a) decisional forgiveness and (b) emotional well-being. We also tested models that included trait forgivingness and the motivation to forgive to maintain relationships. Results indicated that (a) trait forgivingness and relational motivations to forgive uniquely mediate the relationship between interdependent self-construal and decisional forgiveness and (b) trait forgivingness may be a pathway from interdependent self-construal to emotional well-being.     

Evolutionary Theory and Self‐perception: Sex Differences in Body Esteem Predictors of Self‐perceived Physical and Sexual Attractiveness and Self‐Esteem

Responses to the body esteem scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984) and multiple regression were used to determine if evolutionary biological theory is relevant to an understanding of self‐perceived physical and sexual attractiveness and self‐esteem and to determine if physical and sexual attractiveness are the same construct. It was hypothesized that regression models of physical and sexual attractiveness would differ within and across sex groups and that models of self‐esteem would differ across sex groups in accordance with evolutionary theory. These hypotheses were supported. Attributes of the body related to fecundity and successful mothering characteristics predicted for women and attributes of the body related to strength and dominance predicted for men. In addition, attributes of the body dealing with sexual maturity were stronger predictors of sexual attractiveness. Physical and sexual attractiveness are not the same constructs. This research indicates that evolutionary bological theory can provide relevant insight for an understanding of self‐perceived attractiveness and self‐esteem.     

MAPPING THE LANDSCAPE: LEVELS OF TRANSFERENCE INTERPRETATION3

The author argues that there are distinctly different kinds of transference interpretation, each of which might be valid in particular circumstances in analysis, but which contain and imply different understandings of what is meant by a ‘transference interpretation’. She suggests that transference interpretations may be at any one of four different levels, and she describes these levels as ranging from interpretations that point to links between current events in the analysis and events from the patient's history, through interpretations that link events in the patient's external life to the patient's often unconscious phantasies about the analyst and the analysis, to interpretations that focus on the use of the analyst and the analytic situation to enact unconscious phantasy configurations, sometimes pulling the analyst into the enactment. Material from four consecutive sessions of an analysis is presented to illustrate how all levels of transference interpretation may be part of a lively and meaningful analysis, but how the level of interpretation may change as the level of understanding deepens within a session and from one session to the next.     

Porterfield and Wells on the motions of our eyes

William Porterfield (ca 1969-1771) and William Charles Wells (1757-1817) conducted experimental investigations on eye movements related to accommodation, binocular vision, and vertigo. Porterfield gave a correct interpretation of Scheiner's experiment and invented an optometer to measure the near and far points of distinct vision. He also demonstrated the involvement of the crystalline lens in accommodation by examining vision in an aphakic person. Wells devised an alternative means of measuring the limits of vision and noted his own deterioration of sight with age; he studied the effects of belladonna on pupil size and accommodation. Their analyses of binocular visual direction contrasted Porterfield's view that perceived location was innately determined with Well's argument that visual direction was innate whereas visual distance was learned. Both Porterfield and Wells investigated the involvement of eye movements in binocular vision and in postrotary visual motion. Porterfield maintained that the eyes did not move following body rotation, whereas Wells, using an afterimage as stabilised retinal image, described the characteristics of postrotary nystagmus and their dependence on head orientation. Despite the neglect of Well's work, he should be considered as laying the foundations for the study of vestibular-visual interaction, even though the function of the vestibular system was not known at that time.     

Superordinate goals and intergroup behaviour: The effect of role ambiguity and status on intergroup attitudes and task performance

An experiment examined the effects of role ambiguity and relative group status in an intergroup situation where a superordinate goal was salient. One-hundred-and-fifty-six subjects in groups of three undertook a cooperative task under conditions where the groups' roles were clearly Different, Similar, or not allocated (Control). In addition, the groups' perceived competence at the task was either equally High, equally Low, or unequal. Financial rewards were contingent on successful completion of the joint task. Two contrasting hypotheses were derived from Social Identity Theory: one (H1) predicted most favourable intergroup attitudes in the Control condition where lack of any clear differentiation in group roles might facilitate a superordinate identifcation. In contrast, (H2) predicted least favourable attitudes in this condition on the grounds that groups lacked a distinctive identity. Support for the second hypothesis was found since friendliness towards the outgroup decreased with increasing role ambiguity. The status variable also had consistent effects. As predicted, mutual evaluations tended to reflect the consensually agreed status differences: least bias being shown towards high status outgroups, most by high status ingroups. Task performance was also affected by role ambiguity. Judges' ratings of the group products were found to be more favourable as role ambiguity increased, in contrast to the friendliness data. The implications of these findings for Social Identity Theory, the Contact Hypothesis, and theories of group performance are discussed.     

TEACHING FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITY SKILLS TO AUTISTIC CHILDREN USING NONHANDICAPPED PEER TUTORS

In this study, two autistic children were paired with normal peers who, after pretraining sessions, taught community skills to the autistic children. Data were collected during three conditions: baseline, modeling, and peer tutoring. Results demonstrated that no identified skills were acquired during the baseline and modeling conditions. However, direct instruction of each child by a peer tutor resulted in the learning and maintenance of functional community skills.