A cross-cultural study of family functioning

The Family Assessment Device (FAD) was used to compare patterns of family functioning in two cultural settings, North America and Hungary. The sample size consisted of 95 nonclinical North American families and 58 nonclinical Hungarian families. No cross-cultural differences were found in the families' general functioning nor in their affective involvement or affective responsiveness as measured by the FAD. Hungarian families, however, perceived their functioning as significantly better than the North American families in problem-solving and in communication. North American families rated themselves significantly better than the Hungarians in setting family rules and boundaries and in meeting their family responsibilities. Results from this study suggest that cultural values can affect a family's functioning and that differences in areas of family functioning can be captured using the FAD. A discussion of broad societal values of the two cultures was used to interpret the contrasting patterns of family functioning.Cross-cultural studies serve many purposes. In general they provide knowledge about the different cultures under investigation. As such, they broaden and enrich our perspectives of ourselves and the world around us. More specifically they highlight similarities and differences across cultures, information that can be helpful in further refining our understanding of the impact of diverse and varying socio-political forces.A topic of particular interest to family therapists and researchers is family functioning in different cultural settings. In spite of continuing research in this area, few studies examine cross-cultural patterns of family interactions and even fewer do so with instruments specifically designed to assess family functioning.From a family perspective, particularly looking at pathology in family functioning, cross-cultural comparisons can be used to highlight areas of dysfunction common to families irrespective of the cultural context. From a cross-cultural perspective, family comparisons can be used to point out the cultural effects and emphases given to different dimensions of functioning within a common system (i.e., the family unit).Both conceptual and methodological problems have contributed to shortcomings in previous cross-cultural studies (Fabrega, 1974; Kleinman, 1987; Flaherty et al., 1988; Rogler, 1989). A basic criticism of such studies has been the assumption that meanings and values in one culture are equivalent to those in another.Another issue, which is particularly pertinent to our study, is the use of an instrument which is developed in one culture and administered in another cultural setting. A potential problem this raises is inferring cultural differences between groups when the translated and the original instruments are not actually comparable in meaning. In fact, one objective of the study was to see whether our own self-report measure of family functioning, the Family Assessment Device (FAD, Epstein et al., 1978, 1983), could be successfully used in another cultural setting.The following report is part of a larger research project, conducted in 1986–87, that compared depressed and nonclinical families across two cultures. The findings presented here are comparisons between nonclinical Hungarian and nonclinical North American families. In our earlier study differences in family interactions between clinically depressed and nonclinical families were evident in both cultural settings (Keitner et al., in press). It was not clear, however, if significant cross-cultural differences in family functioning would be found for the normal group of families and, if so, how these would differ from their ill counterparts. Inclusion of the normal families thus served two purposes, as controls in the larger study to test within cultural differences and as comparison groups in a separate analysis to test between cultural differences.A specific objective of this study was to contrast patterns of perceived family functioning in nonclinical Hungarian families and North American families. Another objective was to determine if the Family Assessment Device (FAD), a self-report measure of family functioning, could be successfully used in different cultural contexts. Hungary was chosen as an appropriate country of study for several reasons. It is at the crossroads of East and West, sharing enough similarities with western culture to validate comparisons, yet different enough in both its cultural and sociopolitical system that some differences could be expected to emerge. Because it is likely that the Hungarian social system is less familiar to readers than that of North American, the results are discussed with particular reference to Hungary.We would like to thank Drs. J. Furedi and T. Kurimay for help in translating the Family Assessment Device and Professors J. Szilard and Muszong-Kovacs for their support of this study. This work was supported in part by the Firan Foundation.     

Couple therapy and the developmental phase of couple relations with students

The aim of this research project has been, in terms of couple evaluation and therapy, to study structural couplings between individual development and the epigenesis of couple relationships. The epigenesis of couple relations was studied according to the model developed by Wynne in which the epigenetic stages are attachment/ caregiving, communicating, joint problem-solving, mutuality, and intimacy. Attachment/caregiving is crucial for the success of couple therapy. The research on 57 couples makes possible a new paradigm for theoretically understanding interconnections between individual development and development of the couple relation; valuable information for planning integrated and need-specific treatment of the couple relation; and evaluation of the course and prognosis of couple relationship with student.This study was carried out at the Health Care Center for Students, in Turku, Finland, and was financially supported by the Pro Sanitate Studiosorum Institute, Helsinki, Finland. We have been in cooperation with and received invaluable constructive criticism from Lyman C. Wynne, MD, PhD, whose theoretical model we applied in this study. Ms. Birgitta Nolvi's secretarial work was greatly appreciated.     

Need-adapted treatment of schizophrenic processes: The essential role of family-centered therapy meetings

Need-adapted treatment is a psychotherapeutically oriented approach to psychoses that has been planned and is implemented individually in each case, combining different activities so that they meet the needs of each patient as well as the people making up her or his personal interactional network (usually the family). A systemic initial intervention, carried out as a conjoint session of the patient, the family members, and a team of 3–4 staff members is an essential part of this approach. The name therapy meeting was given to these sessions because of their notable therapeutic significance. Therapy meetings are often continued during the later phases of treatment to follow up the course of treatment and to reassess the therapeutic plans.     

Effectiveness of short-term seminars in four different cultures

The authors examine the knowledge, attitudes, and suppositions concerning family therapy among specialists from four professionally and politically quite different cultures. The results of the survey, which was carried out among participants in workshops and specialists' training courses, have shown that: attitudes toward and the place of psychotherapy in a given culture serve as a relevant point of reference for finding out about attitudes toward family therapy; the value of the family as a sociological unit has a formative effect on views regarding family therapy; and professional and political isolation may be a hindrance to the formation of a healthy family therapy approach, but the basic attitude toward psychotherapy is not significantly influenced by ideological factors.     

Family therapists and family business: A view of the future

The family business is a unique entity that has recently come to the attention of business consultants and family therapists. The unique processes of family business are amendable to the applications of family systems theory, organizational development theory, and various theories that focus on individual growth and development. In this paper we review some of the basic concepts relative to understanding family businesses and briefly outline our approach to consultation with family businesses.     

Community engagement,greening, and violent crime: A test of the greening hypothesis and Busy Streets

Researchers have documented that vacant lot greening can reduce community-level crime and violence. Busy Streets Theory (BST) suggests that residents who are involved in the greening process can help to improve physical environments and build social connections that deter crime and violence. Yet few researchers have explored how community engagement in the greening process may affect crime and violence outcomes. We applied BST to test the effects of community-engaged vacant lot greening compared to vacant lots that received either professional mowing or no treatment, on the density of violent crime around study lots. Using mixed effects regression models, we analyzed trends in violent crime density over the summer months from 2016 to 2018 at 2102 street segments in Youngstown, OH. These street segments fell within 150 meters of an intervention parcel that was classified as one of three conditions: community-engaged maintenance, professional mowing, or no treatment (control). We found that street segments in areas receiving community-engaged maintenance or professional mowing experienced greater declines in violent crime density than street segments in areas receiving no treatment, and more decline occurred in the community-engaged condition compared to the professional mow condition. Our findings support BST and suggest that community-engaged greening of vacant lots in postindustrial cities with a concentrated vacancy can reduce crime and violence.     

Extension of the Job Demands-Resources model in the prediction of burnout and engagement among teachers over time

Our purpose was to extend the Job Demand-Resources Model (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) by including personal resources, job demands and job resources to predict burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, depersonalization) and work engagement (vigour and dedication). The sample comprised 274 teachers from 23 secondary schools of the Valencian Community (Spain). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses have revealed: (1) the predictor effect of quantitative overload on exhaustion and dedication at T2, (2) role conflict on cynicism and (3) role ambiguity on dedication. Lastly, the mediating role of burnout and engagement at T2. Practical implications and directions of future research are discussed.     

Psychological Follow-up of Presymptomatic Genetic Testing for Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 2 (SCA2) in Cuba

Presymptomatic testing for spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) in Cuba started five years ago. We have now investigated the psychological impact of test results on 150 individuals at 50% risk for SCA2. In a prospective study, psychological instruments were used to evaluate depression, anxiety and family functioning (1) before testing and (2) one year after disclosure of the test result. One year after, anxiety and depression levels decreased both in carriers and non-carriers, but anxiety decreased significantly more in carriers. Pathological levels of anxiety were seen mostly in members of dysfunctional families, but decreased more in them than in other consultands. Presymptomatic testing thus seems to have been especially beneficial for these testees, possibly due to a greater gain from the psychosocial support received. It would be pertinent to evaluate now the impact of other psychosocial variables and perform longer-term longitudinal studies.     

Flexibility competencies: emotional organization management

The aim of this article is to analyse the transferral of flexibility from contemporary organizations to workers. Through the approach of management by competencies, organizations try to develop in their workers behaviours that are related to efficient job performance. In order to appraise the importance of this approach, we used a critical-rational perspective to discuss the productivity demands that are characteristic of advanced industrial societies. The article shows how the link between workers' flexibility management and their emotional competencies affects their lives, which, like the organizations, should be versatile and adaptable to change.     

HOW PSYCHIATRIC TREATMENTS CAN ENHANCE PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Psychological defense mechanisms are a powerful and often unappreciated force safeguarding mental health. Although rarely directed in this way, the most common forms of psychiatric treatment—psychotherapy and antidepressants—can enhance psychological defense mechanisms. Psychotherapy, through both specific and nonspecific factors, induces positive perspective shifts favoring positive cognitive distortions, including adaptive classical defense mechanisms and healthy attribution biases. Antidepressants, by altering very basic emotional information processing, such as facial expression recognition and emotional memories, also foster positive cognitive distortions. By shifting perceptions and thoughts in a positive direction, psychotherapy and antidepressants improve the capacity to dissociate from negative emotional stimuli.Brad Bowins, M.D., FRCP(C), is a staff psychiatrist at the University of Toronto Health Service and he is in private practice.