When the rules are reversed: Action-monitoring consequences of reversing stimulus–response mappings

How does switching tasks affect our ability to monitor and adapt our behavior? Largely independent lines of research have examined how individuals monitor their actions and adjust to errors, on the one hand, and how they are able to switch between two or more tasks, on the other. Few studies, however, have explored how these two aspects of cognitive?Cbehavioral flexibility interact. That is, how individuals monitor their actions when task rules are switched remains unknown. The present study sought to address this question by examining the action-monitoring consequences of response switching??a form of task switching that involves switching the response that is associated with a particular stimulus. We recorded event-related brain potentials (ERPs) while participants performed a modified letter flanker task in which the stimulus?Cresponse (S?CR) mappings were reversed between blocks. Specifically, we examined three ERPs??the N2, the error-related negativity (ERN), and the error positivity (Pe)??that have been closely associated with action monitoring. The findings revealed that S?CR reversal blocks were associated with dynamic alterations of action-monitoring brain activity: the N2 and ERN were enhanced, whereas the Pe was reduced. Moreover, participants were less likely to adapt their posterror behavior in S?CR reversal blocks. Taken together, these data suggest that response switching results in early enhancements of effortful control mechanisms (N2 and ERN) at the expense of reductions in later response evaluation processes (Pe). Thus, when rules change, our attempts at control are accompanied by less attention to our actions.     

The Quality of the Childrearing Environment of Refugee or Asylum‐Seeking Children and the Best Interests of the Child: Reliability and Validity of the BIC‐Q

The Best Interest of the Child Questionnaire (BIC‐Q) has been designed as an instrument for screening the quality of the rearing situation of asylum‐seeking or refugee children. It is intended to aid legal decisions in asylum procedures. The aim of this study was to determine the reliability and the construct validity of the BIC‐Q. Based on a study sample of refugee or asylum‐seeking children in the Netherlands (N = 74), the psychometric quality of the BIC‐Q was investigated using Cohen's kappa for the inter‐ and intrarater reliability and a nonparametric item response model for the construct validity. The interrater and intrarater reliabilities of the BIC‐Q were good (kappa = .65 and .74 respectively). The results of the item response model revealed that the 14 pedagogical environmental conditions formed a strong and valid measurement scale for the quality of the childrearing environment (H = .55; rho = .94). Preliminary results indicate that the BIC‐Q may be applied to support decisions on where the asylum‐seeking or refugee child has the best opportunities for development. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Values as Predictors of Anticipated Socio‐cultural Adaptation Among Potential Migrants from Russia to Finland

This study examined the role of value patterns of potential migrants from Russia to Finland (N = 229) in predicting expectations of post‐migration socio‐cultural adaptation. Furthermore, the fit between migrants' personal values and the values they expect to encounter in the new home country (i.e. perceived value congruence) was hypothesized to predict anticipated socio‐cultural adaptation (ASCA). The study took into account perceived cultural distance variables as well as socio‐demographic controls traditionally related to adaptation outcomes among migrants. According to the results, familiarity with the host country (i.e., the number of Finnish friends/relatives in Finland), the openness to change value and perceived value congruence significantly predicted potential migrants' ASCA. When using four sub‐scales (interpersonal relations, cognitive understanding, impersonal perils and bureaucracy) of the ASCA‐scale, a more complex picture emerged. The results suggest that future work should include values, particularly perceived value congruence, in the analysis of the cultural fit hypothesis, as well as find better means of supporting immigrant adjustment starting at the pre‐migration stage. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Eye movements in reading versus nonreading tasks: Using E-Z Reader to understand the role of word/stimulus familiarity

In this article, we extend our previous work (Reichle, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2012) using the principles of the E-Z Reader model to examine the factors that determine when and where the eyes move in both reading and non-reading tasks, and in particular the role that word/stimulus familiarity plays in determining when the eyes move from one word/stimulus to the next. In doing this, we first provide a brief overview of E-Z Reader, including its assumption that word familiarity is the "engine" driving eye movements during reading. We then review the theoretical considerations that motivated this assumption, as well as recent empirical evidence supporting its validity. We also report the results of three new simulations that were intended to demonstrate the utility of the familiarity check in three tasks: (1) reading; (2) searching for a target word in embedded in text; and (3) searching for the letter O in linear arrays of Landolt Cs. The results of these simulations suggest that the familiarity check always improves task efficiency by speeding its rate of performance. We provide several arguments as to why this conclusion is not likely to be true for the two non-reading tasks, and in the final section of the paper, we provide a fourth simulation to test the hypothesis that problems associated with the mis-identification of words may also curtail the too liberal use of word familiarity.     

Effort and Aspirations in Tax Evasion: Experimental Evidence

Is the effort exerted to earn taxable income considered in compliance decisions? And if so, is hard‐earned income or easy money more likely to be concealed from authorities? While economic theory postulates that prior costs should not affect present decisions, psychological research shows that prior investments of money, time, or effort do matter. Findings from previous studies on the impact of effort on abstract decision tasks suggest two contradictory predictions for the context of tax compliance decisions: Either taxable income earned by high effort is subjectively of higher value, and therefore more likely to be evaded, or investments of effort cause a shift of the reference point through the establishment of an aspiration level, resulting in honest declaration of income. Two experiments were conducted to test these predictions. In a business simulation, taxable income was obtained by different levels of effort and consequently had to be reported to authorities. Results show that tax evasion was more pronounced in low‐effort conditions. This suggests that effort changes the reference point rather than the slope, and provides evidence that in tax compliance decisions aspiration levels serve as reference points. Implications for tax audits are discussed. L'effort déployé pour obtenir des revenus imposables est‐il pris en compte dans les décisions qui en découlent? Et si c'est le cas, est‐ce l'argent facile ou les revenus durement gagnés qui présentent une plus forte probabilité d'être soustraits au fisc? Alors que la théorie économique postule que le coût antérieur n'a pas de retombées sur les décisions présentes, les recherches de psychologie montrent que les investissements passés en argent, temps ou effort ont leur importance. Des travaux sur l'impact de l'effort sur des tâches de décision abstraite débouchent sur deux prédictions contradictoires en ce qui concerne les décisions relatives à l'impôt: ou le revenu imposable obtenu à la suite d'un effort substantiel est subjectivement fortement valorisé et a de fortes chances d'être camouflé, ou l'effort investi provoque un changement de référence à travers l'instauration d'un niveau d'aspiration, ce qui a pour conséquence une déclaration honnête des revenus. On a réalisé deux expériences pour mettre à l'épreuve ces prédictions. Dans une simulation commerciale, le revenu imposable a été obtenu suite à différents niveaux d'effort et devait être portéà la connaissance du fisc. Les résultats montrent que l'évasion fiscale était plus accentuée dans les conditions où l'effort était modeste. Il faut en conclure que l'effort entraîne une mutation du système de référence plutôt qu'une simple modification de niveau et que dans les décisions relatives à l'impôt les niveaux d'aspiration servent de point de référence. On réfléchit aux leçons à en tirer pour le contrôle fiscal.     

Depression and cognitive sequelae registered within the first year among young Danish TBI survivors

The aim of the study was to determine the proportion of depression and cognitive sequelae among young (15-30 years) Danish TBI survivors referred to interdisciplinary evaluation through a nationwide government-initiated health initiative. The cross-sectional study is based on data from the “Danish register for young adults with acquired brain injury” on TBI survivors included from October 2013 to December 2016. The main measures were Major depression inventory, Trail making test A and B, Fluency, Word learning with selective reminding, Matrix reasoning, Coding and Glasgow outcome scale - extended (GOS-E). During the study period, 131 young TBI survivors were referred to one of five national outpatient clinics. Ninety-six had complete data and of these 14.6% fulfilled the ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for depression and 34.4% had cognitive sequelae. An association was found between depression and cognitive sequelae (p = 0.004). Patients with both depression and cognitive sequelae (n = 10) had a significantly lower mean score on GOS-E (p = 0.0001). Depression and cognitive sequelae were frequent and associated with a poorer global functional outcome among young TBI survivors referred within a year after trauma. This finding and the notion that only 20% of the expected TBI population was referred to this nationwide health initiative indicate an unacknowledged need for interdisciplinary follow-up.     

A Call for Mental Health Treatment in Incarcerated Settings with Transgender Individuals

Abstract

The U.S. correctional system has become the epicenter for public health and mental health crisis. This article discusses literature documenting incarcerated transgender individuals’ mental health treatment. The severity of mental illness treatment issues within the system amongst transgender and other LGBTQ?+?individuals, clearly displays the need for interventions tailored to this population. Recommended interventions are centered around post traumatic response and cater to those who exist in marginalized populations with consideration given to the significance of family strain and support. Overall, there is a need for a shift in mindset and available services to treat incarcerated transgender individuals.