Scrutinizing science scrutinized

This essay argues that Laudan et al.’s (1986,1988) project of empirically testing philosophical models of scientific change was ill‐conceived, thus the data brought to light by the historians had little bearing upon the original problem: testing philosophical models of scientific change. The project is internally inconsistent and the procedure relating the theses under scrutiny to the models of change is so undefined that the corroboration or falsification of the theses teaches us nothing about the models. Serious anomalies in Laudan et al.’s (1988) report of experimental results are then shown to be related to already noticed methodological difficulties. I conclude that the project fails, contrary to its authors’ claim, to use historical evidence in a probative, rather than a simply illustrative, way.     

Books Received

Abstract

Social identity theory was applied in group therapy for adults with mild mental retardation. Social identity theory suggests that social group membership, also called collective identity, has an impact on self-esteem. Individuals will try to maintain self-esteem by viewing their social groups positively. This may not be possible for individuals who are members of a stigmatized group. However, it may be possible to enhance self-esteem by broadening one’s awareness of collective identity. Furthermore, being able to positively view other individuals who are co-members of one’s own stigmatized group can also have positive consequences for self-esteem. A clinical vignette demonstrates this process in group therapy. Results are discussed as being applicable to members of various stigmatized groups.     

The Person in Distress: On the Biosocial Dynamics of Adaptation

Abstract

The application of Motivational Interviewing (MI) principles in Modified Interpersonal Group Therapy (MIGT) addresses two gaps in the literature. First, it explicitly extends MIGT to non-abstinent, addicted patients who are in the precontemplative and contemplative stages of change in contrast to most MIGT models where abstinence is usually required. Second, it provides a novel, process-oriented group intervention for MI, in contrast to current applications of group-based MI which are more structured in their format. The main modification in technique was to prioritize the horizontal exploration of substance use disclosures with a focus on the here-and-now experience of disclosure and the interpersonal impact on the group, in order to: 1) encourage members to openly discuss their ambivalence and shifting motivational states, 2) harness the evocative impact of substance use disclosures between members to elicit change talk (self-motivational statements), and 3) selectively reinforce change talk when it emerges from these exchanges. The authors illustrate these concepts with a case report of an open-ended MIGT group with comorbid mental illness and addiction.     

Memory for Frequency of Bizarre and Common Stimuli: Limitations of the Automaticity Hypothesis

In 2 experiments, the influence of intention to process frequency on accuracy of memory for frequency of bizarre and common sentences was investigated. The results from multiple regression analyses indicated that intentional processing increased the accuracy of frequency judgments when memory for frequency was tested after a 2-min (Experiment 1) and after a 48-hr (Experiment 2) retention interval. Furthermore, the results of Experiment 2 indicated that unintentional processors tended to overestimate frequencies of bizarre relative to common items after a delay. The implications of the results are discussed with regard to L. Hasher and R. T. Zacks's (1984) automaticity hypothesis, human performance, and the accuracy of judgments of frequency of occurrence of unusual events.     

Concerning So-Called Group Effects

Abstract

Sermons and addresses. By John Bascom, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1913. 356 p.

Things learned by living. By John Bascom. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1913. 228 p.

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The mothercraft manual. By Mary L. Read. Boston, Little, Brown and Co., 1916. 440 p.

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Some problems in city school administration. By George D. Strayer. Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Co., 1916. 234 p.

How to use your mind; a psychology of study. By Harry D. Kitson. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co., (c. 1916). 216 p.

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Form find functions of American government. By Thomas Harrison Reed. Yonkers-on-Hudson, World Book Co., 1916. 549 p.

The supervision of arithmetic. By W. A. Jessup and L. D. Coffman. New York, Macmillan, 1916. 225 p.

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The expectant mother. By Samuel Wyllis Bandler. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Co., 1916. 213 p.

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A handbook of American private schools. (An annual publication). Boston, Porter E. Sargent (c. 1916). 604 p.

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No. 75, Adjustment of school organisation to various population groups, by Robert Alexander Fyfe McDonald. 1915. 145 p.

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Reasons for Not Helping

Second-grade, fourth-grade, sixth-grade, high school, and college students (N = 140) were asked to describe situations in which they would not help someone else and their reasons for not helping in those situations. Younger subjects used perceived self-incompetence as a reason for not helping more frequently than did older subjects. In contrast, older subjects more frequently cited a desire not to violate another's personal situation and/or their own internalized values, laws, and rules as reasons not to help than did their younger counterparts. For a majority of the not-helping categories, however, no significant effect of age level was found, and indeed, some individuals in even the youngest age group expressed subtle and insightful reasons for not helping.     

Age Differences in Coping Resources and Satisfaction With Life Among Middle-Aged,Young-Old,and Oldest-Old Adults

The authors examined age differences in perceived coping resources and satisfaction with life across 3 older-adult age groups (45-64, 65-74, and 75 years and older). The 98 participants represented healthy, socially active, community-residing adults. Group comparisons were made on 12 individual coping scales, and an overall coping resource effectiveness score was computed. No significant differences were found for 11 of the coping resources or for overall coping resource effectiveness. Similar consistencies in life satisfaction were found across the 3 age groups. The findings indicate that (a) for healthy adults, the oldest old cope at least as effectively as their younger counterparts, despite their likelihood of encountering increased levels of stress; and (b) psychologically, old age may be viewed as a time of resilience and fortitude.     

The Role of Perspective Taking and Empathy in Children's Machiavellianism,Prosocial Behavior,and Motive for Helping

Fourth- and fifth-grade children (N = 117) were categorized into high- and low-empathy and affective-perspective-taking (APT) groups based on their scores on the Bryant (1982) empathy scale and a modified version of the Rothenberg (1970) and Silvern, Waterman, Sobesky, and Ryan (1979) APT measures. Children in the low-empathy/high-APT group had significantly higher Machiavellianism scores on Braginsky's (1970) measure than did children in the other empathy/APT groups. Highly empathic children were rated by their teachers as more helpful under certain circumstances and cited other-oriented reasons for their own helping behavior more frequently than did less empathic children.