Effects of motor intention on the perception of somatosensory events: a behavioural and functional magnetic resonance imaging study

The intention to execute a movement can modulate our perception of sensory events, and this modulation is observed ahead of both ocular and upper limb movements. However, theoretical accounts of these effects, and also the empirical data, are often contradictory. Accounts of "active touch", and the premotor theory of attention, have emphasized how movement intention leads to enhanced perceptual processing at the target of a movement, or on the to-be-moved effector. By contrast, recent theories of motor control emphasize how internal "forward" model (FM) estimates may be used to cancel or attenuate sensory signals that arise as a result of self-generated movements. We used behavioural and functional brain imaging (functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI) to investigate how perception of a somatosensory stimulus differed according to whether it was delivered to a hand that was about to execute a reaching movement or the alternative, nonmoving, hand. The results of our study demonstrate that a somatosensory stimulus delivered to a hand that is being prepared for movement is perceived to have occurred later than when that same stimulus is delivered to a nonmoving hand. This result indicates that it takes longer for a tactile stimulus to be detected when it is delivered to a moving limb and may correspond to a change in perceptual threshold. Our behavioural results are paralleled by the results of our fMRI study that demonstrated that there were significantly reduced blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) responses within the parietal operculum and insula following somatosensory stimulation of the hand being prepared for movement, compared to when an identical stimulus was delivered to a nonmoving hand. These findings are consistent with the prediction of FM accounts of motor control that postulate that central sensory suppression of somatosensation accompanies self-generated limb movements, and with previous reports indicating that effects of sensory suppression are observed in higher order somatosensory regions.     

Worry spreads: interpersonal transfer of problem-related anxiety

This paper distinguishes processes potentially contributing to interpersonal anxiety transfer, including object-directed social appraisal, empathic worry, and anxiety contagion, and reviews evidence for their operation. We argue that these anxiety-transfer processes may be exploited strategically when attempting to regulate relationship partners' emotion. More generally, anxiety may serve as either a warning signal to other people about threat (alerting function) or an appeal for emotional support or practical help (comfort-seeking function). Tensions between these two interpersonal functions may account for mutually incongruent interpersonal responses to expressed anxiety, including mistargeted interpersonal regulation attempts. Because worry waxes and wanes over time as a function of other people's ongoing reactions, interpersonal interventions may help to alleviate some of its maladaptive consequences.     

Information processing bias against emotional facial expressions in social anxiety

The present study examined whether information processing bias against emotional facial expressions is present among individuals with social anxiety. College students with high (high social anxiety group; n  = 26) and low social anxiety (low social anxiety group; n  = 26) performed three different types of working memory tasks: (a) ordering positive and negative facial expressions according to the intensity of emotion; (b) ordering pictures of faces according to age; and (c) ordering geometric shapes according to size. The high social anxiety group performed significantly more poorly than the low social anxiety group on the facial expression task, but not on the other two tasks with the nonemotional stimuli. These results suggest that high social anxiety interferes with processing of emotionally charged facial expressions.     

Neural correlates of affective influence on choice

Making the right choice depends crucially on the accurate valuation of the available options in the light of current needs and goals of an individual. Thus, the valuation of identical options can vary considerably with motivational context. The present study investigated the neural structures underlying context dependent evaluation. We instructed participants to choose from food menu items based on different criteria: on their anticipated taste or on ease of preparation. The aim of the manipulation was to assess which neural sites were activated during choice guided by incentive value, and which during choice based on a value-irrelevant criterion. To assess the impact of increased motivation, affect-guided choice and cognition-guided choice was compared during the sated and hungry states. During affective choice, we identified increased activity in structures representing primarily valuation and taste (medial prefrontal cortex, insula). During cognitive choice, structures showing increased activity included those implicated in suppression and conflict monitoring (lateral orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate). Hunger influenced choice-related activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Our results show that choice is associated with the use of distinct neural structures for the pursuit of different goals.     

Perceived effects of other people’s emotion regulation on their vicarious emotional response

Across two studies, we investigated how friends’ typically used emotion regulation strategies (rumination or reappraisal) influence judgements about their vicarious emotions (sympathy, tenderness, and personal distress) when presented with a photograph of a suffering toddler. Results of both studies demonstrated that participants reporting on a ruminative friend indicated that their friend would feel greater personal distress and less tenderness and would perceive the toddler as experiencing more need and pain than participants reporting on a reappraising friend. These results are consistent with the behavioural trajectories associated with rumination and reappraisal, and are discussed in light of their implications for interpersonal emotion regulation.     

Temporal order of strokes primes letter recognition

Does the perception of objects that are the result of human actions reflect the underlying temporal structure of the actions that gave rise to them? We tested whether the temporal order of letter strokes influences letter recognition. In three experiments, participants were asked to identify letters that temporally unfolded as an additive sequence of letter strokes, either consistent or inconsistent with common writing action. Participants were significantly faster to identify letters from consistent temporal sequences, indicating that the initial part of the sequence contained sufficient information to prime letter recognition. We suggest that letter perception reflects the temporal structure of letter production; in other words, Simon sees as Simon does.     

Appraisal ratings in diary reports of reasonable and unreasonable anger

Forty‐eight undergraduate students completed diaries reporting on up to five episodes of anger experienced over the course of a week. Ratings of motivational relevance, motivational incongruence and other‐accountability appraisals were significantly lower for relatively less reasonable instances of anger. Multilevel modelling confirmed that rated reasonableness of anger was a significant continuous predictor of the same three appraisal dimensions, even after controlling for reported anger. These results extend earlier findings obtained using retrospective questionnaires, suggesting that reportable other‐blame‐related appraisals are generally weaker when anger is perceived as unreasonable. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The surprising effect of partner flaws and qualities on romantic affect

We examined whether the intensity of romantic affect is a function of deterrence to that affect (i.e., a reason for not feeling the affect) and explored the effect of deterrents that are relevant to the stimulus instigating the emotion. In line with the Emotional Intensity Theory, we found that positive affect toward the romantic partner was reduced by a minor salient partner flaw, was maintained intense by a moderately important flaw, and was reduced by a very important partner flaw. Study 2 replicated the results of Study 1. In Study 3, romantic negative affect in the form of anger at the romantic partner was a nonmonotonic function of the importance of a salient positive partner characteristic. Anger was reduced by a minor partner quality, was maintained intense by a moderately important quality, and was reduced by a very important partner quality. Theoretical and practical implications for romantic relationships are discussed.