Distinguishing the Ratio Bias from Unsystematic Error: Situation and Individual‐difference Effects

People often perceive the occurrence of events to be less likely when the likelihood of the event is expressed in ratios consisting of smaller numbers versus larger numbers, an effect known as the ratio bias. This work presents a theoretical framework for the conditions that need to be met for the ratio bias to occur. In doing so, we contrast effects on the ratio bias to those on unsystematic error, which have often been confounded in previous research. We find that the ratio bias is weaker (1) when both sets of numbers are relatively large than when both sets of numbers are relatively small; (2) for scenarios involving lottery tickets than for scenarios involving drawing balls from a bin; and (3) when a physical display depicting the numbers is provided to participants. Each of these factors reduced the ratio bias without reducing unsystematic error. Additionally, we show that unsystematic error is lower among people who (1) reason on the basis of proportions rather than on the basis of the numerator and denominator individually; (2) score higher on the rational scale of the Rational–Experiential Inventory; and (3) are of higher numeracy. We use these results to distinguish causes of error generally from those on the ratio bias specifically and discuss the implications for our understanding of when the ratio bias occurs. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring the Impact of Attachment Anxiety and Avoidance on the Perception of Couple Conflict

Attachment anxiety and avoidance have been shown to affect how an individual processes social information such as facial expressions. Previous work has not explored perception of couple relationships. The current study had 39 individuals observe images and videos of couples in conflict. Results suggest that individuals with higher attachment anxiety perceived more intensity in negative interactions/affect and less positive interactions/affect in the couples they observed. Implications for therapy, clinical supervision, and family life education are discussed.     

An Application of Brief Experimental Analysis with Early Writing

Students’ poor performance on national assessments of writing suggests that educators need effective approaches to assess and intervene with writing problems. Brief experimental analysis (BEA) has supporting evidence for identifying interventions in reading, but little research has investigated BEA with writing. Early writing is an especially important period for students, and the current study sought to extend BEA research in early writing. Results showed that BEAs for 3 first grade students identified promising writing interventions, and extended analyses showed improved performance for each student following implementation of the interventions. Implications for future research in direct assessment and intervention are discussed.     

Bottom-Up Analysis of Single-Case Research Designs

This paper defines and promotes the qualities of a ??bottom-up?? approach to single-case research (SCR) data analysis. Although ??top-down?? models, for example, multi-level or hierarchical linear models, are gaining momentum and have much to offer, interventionists should be cautious about analyses that are not easily understood, are not governed by a ??wide lens?? visual analysis, do not yield intuitive results, and remove the analysis process from the interventionist, who alone has intimate understanding of the design logic and resulting data patterns. ??Bottom-up?? analysis possesses benefits which fit well with SCR, including applicability to designs with few data points and few phases, customization of analyses based on design and data idiosyncrasies, conformation with visual analysis, and directly meaningful effect sizes. Examples are provided to illustrate these benefits of bottom-up analyses.     

Encoding tasks dissociate the effects of divided attention on category-cued recall and category-exemplar generation

The combined effects of encoding tasks and divided attention upon category-exemplar generation and category-cued recall were examined. Participants were presented with pairs of words each comprising a category name and potential example of that category. They were then asked to indicate either (i) their liking for both of the words or (ii) if the exemplar was a member of the category. It was found that divided attention reduced performance on the category-cued recall task under both encoding conditions. However, performance on the category-exemplar generation task remained invariant across the attention manipulation following the category judgment task. This provides further evidence that the processes underlying performance on conceptual explicit and implicit memory tasks can be dissociated, and that the intentional formation of category-exemplar associations attenuates the effects of divided attention on category-exemplar generation.     

The relationships between fat talk, body dissatisfaction, and drive for thinness: perceived stress as a moderator

Although body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness are commonplace in college-aged women, their relationships with fat talk and stress are understudied. This study examined (a) whether fat talk predicts body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness and (b) whether stress moderates these relationships. Results from self-report questionnaires completed by 121 female college students revealed that fat talk and perceived stress were significantly positively correlated with body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. Although fat talk was a significant independent predictor of body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness, stress moderated these relationships such that they were stronger at lower stress levels. Although contrary to predictions, these results are logical when means are considered. Results suggest that fat talk positively predicts body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness in students with relatively lower stress levels, but does not for students under high stress because mean levels of these constructs are all already high.     

Group fixed-role therapy: A clinical application

Fixed-role therapy has primarily been seen as a form of individual therapy. However, Kelly 0955) suggested that it would provide an interesting and useful way of approaching group psychotherapy. This article illustrates the feasibility of Kelly's suggestion in a clinical setting. The group had 5 participants, all of whom had been referred for help with social anxiety or social phobia. Self-report measures were administered before and after group therapy, and the outcome was positive.     

Four-quadrant investigation of job-related affects and behaviours

Emphasizing differences in activation as well as valence, six studies across a range of situations examined relations between types of job-related core affect and 13 self-reported work behaviours. A theory-based measure of affect was developed, and its four-quadrant structure was found to be supported across studies. Also consistent with hypotheses, high-activation pleasant affect was more strongly correlated with positive behaviours than were low-activation pleasant feelings, and those associations tended to be greatest for discretionary behaviours in contrast to routine task proficiency. Additionally as predicted, unpleasant job-related affects that had low rather than high activation were more strongly linked to the negative work behaviours examined. Theory and practice would benefit from greater differentiation between affects and between behaviours.     

A review of: “Implausible professions: Arguments for pluralism and autonomy in psychotherapy and counselling”

R. House and N. Totton (eds) (1997) Implausible Professions: Arguments for Pluralism and Autonomy in Psychotherapy and Counselling, Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, pp. 348, $14.00 (pb) (8% discount direct from publishers)