A graphical method to aid the sequential analysis of observational data

In this paper, two methods of sequential analysis are applied to hypothetical observational data. The first method employs the conventional “conditional probability” approach, illustrated using the GSEQ program (Bakeman & Quera, 1995). In order to overcome some of the difficulties associated with the conditional probability approach, the second method employs a new “normalized and pooled” approach. Essentially, by normalizing periods of time preceding, during, and following each occurrence of a nominated “given” behavior, the proportion of time units devoted to a “target” behavior can be estimated and then pooled across all occurrences of the given behavior. A summary diagram representing the likelihood that the target behavior precedes, occurs concurrently with, and follows the given behavior can then be constructed. Elements of this summary diagram can also be quantified. Given the graphical nature of the output, and its ease of use, the normalized and pooled approach may help to promote the use of sequential analysis in applied settings.     

Trade-offs in detecting letters and comprehending text.

Critics of the letter detection task have questioned whether findings from that paradigm reflect normal reading processes. The present study addresses these questions using a new computerized version of the letter detection task in which reading rate along with letter detection and comprehension accuracy are examined. Previous letter detection findings were replicated with this new computerized task. Different conditions were compared in which detection and comprehension instructions were manipulated as well as the salience of the target letters. The requirement to comprehend had small effects on letter detection accuracy and reading rate, and letter detection only modestly reduced comprehension. Thus, the procedures developed in this study permit examination of the component processes contributing to performance in the letter detection task.     

Religion,Politics and Ethics: Towards a Global Theory of Social Transformation

In this paper I set out a phenomenology of social transformation, based on an analysis of the distinctively religious form of communication which underlies the trans-generational and trans-cultural transmission of world traditions, taking Confucianism and Christianity as their representatives. A phenomenological analysis of their communicative structure allows the possibility of a better understanding of what can be learnt from them in the context of contemporary debates in both China and the West on the relations between religion, ethics and politics. This analysis suggests that the ethical consistency of belief and act, which is the necessary condition for the engendering of long-term solidarity in religious community, has significant implications for ethics in politics, and especially for the legitimacy of representational leadership as a focal point for change in society. The paper concludes that the historical experience of world religions can offer new insights into the nature of political leadership and representation in today’s globalised world and that the appropriate locus for this inquiry is the present negotiation and re-negotiation of relations between China and the West.     

Developmental trajectories for spatial frames of reference in Williams syndrome

Williams syndrome (WS) is a genetic disorder associated with severe visuocognitive impairment. Individuals with WS also report difficulties with everyday wayfinding. To study the development of body-, environment-, and object-based spatial frames of reference in WS, we tested 45 children and adults with WS on a search task in which the participant and a spatial array are moved with respect to each other. Although individuals with WS showed a marked delay, like young controls they demonstrated independent, additive use of body- and environment-based frames of reference. Crucially, object-based (intrinsic) representations based on local landmarks within the array were only marginally used even by adults with WS, whereas in typical development these emerge at 5 years. Deficits in landmark use are consistent with wayfinding difficulties in WS, and may also contribute to problems with basic localization, since in typical development landmark-based representations supplement those based on the body and on self-motion. Difficulties with inhibition or mental rotation may be further components in the impaired ability to use the correct reference frame in WS.     

Is hypnotic suggestibility a stable trait?

The present study examined the trait-like nature of hypnotic suggestibility by examining the stability of hypnotic responsiveness in a test-retest design in which the procedures were administered either live or by audiotape. Contrary to the idea that hypnotizability is a largely immutable, stable trait, scores on the scale of hypnotic responsiveness decreased significantly at the second session. Measures of subjective experiences and expectancies accounted for a sizable portion of the variance in hypnotic responding, both at initial test and at retest. Participants became disengaged with the hypnotic procedures at retest. Participants who received the hypnotic induction by audiotape did not differ from participants who received it live. The results are consistent with sociocognitive and altered state theories of hypnosis, and underline the important role of subjective experiences in hypnotic responding.     

Functional analysis skills training for residential caregivers

Functional analysis is the most effective assessment for identifying the maintaining contingencies of aberrant behavior. However, it is suggested that functional analyses are not conducted regularly due to the level of skill required. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to assess if four residential caregivers, with limited experience with applied behavior analysis, could be trained to implement the standard analog functional analysis conditions. The training consisted of a lecture, written information, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. Results showed that all participants attained percentage correct responding scores above 95% on three consecutive trials following training. One caregiver showed positive generalization of skills to the assessment of another behavioral topography. The result of this study provides further evidence that lay individuals can be trained to assist in conducting functional analyses. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Critical role of the 65-kDa isoform of glutamic acid decarboxylase in consolidation and generalization of Pavlovian fear memory

Evidence suggests that plasticity of the amygdalar and hippocampal GABAergic system is critical for fear memory formation. In this study we investigated in wild-type and genetically manipulated mice the role of the activity-dependent 65-kDa isozyme of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) in the consolidation and generalization of conditioned fear. First, we demonstrate a transient reduction of GAD65 gene expression in the dorsal hippocampus (6 h post training) and in the basolateral complex of the amygdala (24 h post training) during distinct phases of fear memory consolidation. Second, we show that targeted ablation of the GAD65 gene in Gad65(-/-) mice results in a pronounced context-independent, intramodal generalization of auditory fear memory during long-term (24 h or 14 d) but not short-term (30 min) memory retrieval. The temporal specificity of both gene regulation and memory deficits in Gad65 mutant mice suggests that GAD65-mediated GABA synthesis is critical for the consolidation of stimulus-specific fear memory. This function appears to involve a modulation of neural activity patterns in the amygdalo-hippocampal pathway as indicated by a reduction in theta frequency synchronization between the amygdala and hippocampus of Gad65(-/-) mice during the expression of generalized fear memory.     

ASSESSING OBSERVER ACCURACY IN CONTINUOUS RECORDING OF RATE AND DURATION: THREE ALGORITHMS COMPARED

The three algorithms most frequently selected by behavior‐analytic researchers to compute interobserver agreement with continuous recording were used to assess the accuracy of data recorded from video samples on handheld computers by 12 observers. Rate and duration of responding were recorded for three samples each. Data files were compared with criterion records to determine observer accuracy. Block‐by‐block and exact agreement algorithms were susceptible to inflated agreement and accuracy estimates at lower rates and durations. The exact agreement method appeared to be overly stringent for recording responding at higher rates (23.5 responses per minute) and for higher relative duration (72% of session). Time‐window analysis appeared to inflate accuracy assessment at relatively high but not at low response rate and duration (4.8 responses per minute and 8% of session, respectively).