On Becoming What We Might Have Been: Counterfactual Thinking and Self-efficacy

Three experiments examined the hypothesis that, in the aftermath of a performance event, upward counterfactuals reinforce feelings of self-efficacy toward similar future events, whereas downward counterfactuals decrease feelings of self-efficacy. Using a scenario methodology, the first two experiments confirmed this hypothesis: upward counterfactual thinking enhanced feelings of self-efficacy relative to downward counterfactual thinking. In a third experiment, conducted in a more real-world context, upward counterfactuals again led to greater feelings of self-efficacy than downward counterfactuals. However, there were important limiting conditions: the effect of counterfactual thinking on self-efficacy was more or less pronounced depending on both situational and dispositional factors. Whereas the pattern of results provided little support for a self-protection explanation for these limiting conditions, the results were consistent with a depth of processing explanation.     

On the Substitutability of the Third-Person Perception

The prevailing explanation for the Third-Person Perception (TPP) argues that people perceive that others are more influenced by the mass media than themselves in order to maintain a positive self image. If the TPP is indeed a self-preserving bias, then according to psychological research, it should be substitutable with other self-preserving mechanisms. However, past attempts to reduce the TPP after affirming the self have by and large failed. The studies reported in this paper extend these past attempts in two important ways. First, unlike past research that focused on cross-domain substitutability, we test for the substitutability of the TPP within a specific self-domain. Second, unlike past research that manipulated state self-esteem and measured the impact on subsequent TPPs, we also test for the opposite type of substitutability, namely for the impact of the TPP on subsequent self-maintenance mechanisms. Overall, the findings suggest that the TPP is partly substitutable with other self-preserving mechanisms, but this substitutability takes place only within a specific self-domain.     

PERCEPTION OF SOCIALIZATION ROLES: A STUDY OF ISRAELI MOTHERS IN TOWN AND KIBBUTZ*

Variations in mothers' role perceptions were studied as a function of (a) the amount of time mothers spend with their children, and (b) the cultural ideology of childrearing that assigns to the mother either sole or shared responsibility for socialization. Four groups of Israeli mothers of toddlers were studied. Among nuclear family mothers 21 had children in nursery school, and 22 had children in fulltime daycare. Among kibbutz mothers 23 lived on Familial kibbutzim where children slept at home, and 22 lived on Communal kibbutzim where children slept apart from their parents. Questionnaires assessed mothers' perceptions of mother and caregiver influence and their use of disciplinary and nurturant techniques. Whereas amount of time did not contribute to variations in role perceptions, childrearing ideology (sole vs shared socialization responsibility) showed strong effects. In accord with nuclear family ideology, daycare mothers perceived mothers as more influential and as using more of all socializing techniques than caregivers. In accord with their ideology of shared responsibilities, kibbutz mothers perceived caregivers to be as influential as mothers. Further, as specified by kibbutz ideology, kibbutz mothers reported that they used nurturance more and disciplinary techniques less than caregivers. The importance of cultural ideology on parents' role perceptions is discussed.