Mechanisms of aural encoding: VI. Consonants and vowels are remembered as subsets of distinctive features

An attempt was made to examine the manner in which consonants and vowels are coded in short-term memory. under identical recall conditions. Ss were presented with sequences of consonant-vowel digrams for serial recall. Sequences were composed of randomly presented consonants paired with/a/ or randomly presented vowels paired with /d/. Halle’s distinctive feature system was used to generate predictions concerning the frequency of intrusion errors. among phonemes. These predictions were based on the assumption that phonemes are discriminated in memory in terms of their component distinctive features, so that intrusions should most frequently occur between phonemes sharing similar distinctive features. The analysis of intrusion errors revealed that each consonant and vowel phoneme was coded m short-term memory by a particular combination of distinctive features which differed from one phoneme to another. A given phoneme was coded by the same set of distinctive features regardless of the number of syllables in the sequence. However, distinctive feature theories were not able to predict the frequency of intrusion errors for phonemes presented in the middle serial positions of a sequence with 100% accuracy. The results of the experiment support the notion that consonant and vowel phonemes are coded in a similar manner in STM and that this coding involves the retention of a specific set of distinctive features for each phoneme.     

Description of a restricted randomization program (RRP)

A computer program, which produces restricted randomizations of numbers as an aid in counterbalancing large experimental designs, is described. The input to the program is a series of specifications for sampling a pool of random numbers. For example, it might be specified that each number in the pool be selected at least once and not more than twice in each replication of the experiment. The output would be a restricted randomization meeting these specifications. The program has been used in several memory experiments and could be used in other experimental paradigms in learning and perception.     

Submerged electrodes in an aquarium: Validation of a technique for remote sensing of behavior

Necturus maculosus has been selected as representative of a class of neotenic amphibia whose behavior (including gill beat, heartbeat, and tail waving) can be sensed remotely by submerged electrodes in an aquarium. This communication presents a validation of the technique as a preface to reports on the electrophysiology of behavior in unrestrained surgically naive salamanders. Although the sources of the submarine signals are not known with certainty, they apparently depend on two factors: (1) aquarium water of appropriate ionic strength serves as a volume conductor for activity, and (2) animal movement displaces water or produces waves which are sensed as a change in potential at the water-electrode interface. This method provides a continuous comprehensive record of behavior simultaneously from several response systems in a freely behaving animal.     

The wide-angle reflection eye camera for visual choice and pupil size

A new equipment has been devised to photograph the reflection of the stimulus scene in the eye. The resulting motion pictures show the pupil encircling the area of the scene which was being fixated by the gaze; they also show the pupil size. Both measurements are simplified by providing a calibrated edge to the scene. No bite bar is required, and the equipment is quick and easy to use, being especially suitable for young children and also for monkeys.     

Post-retinal storage? Some further observations on Parks’ camel as seen through the eye of a needle

Parks recently reported observations with an apparatus in which successive slices of a stimulus figure could be entered on the same retinal locus. He reported that when this was done, a visual percept of the figure appeared, but one that appeared condensed in length. From this he argued that the slices, differing only in time of arrival, must be stored post-retinally and then reconstructed spatially to form the coherent figure again. In attempting to replicate this important conclusion, we found, contrary to Parks, that the appearance of the percept occurred only when the slices were spread out over the retina, and not when they were entered on the same spot. Thus, the percept is probably due to much more understandable poor temporal resolution, rather than spatial integration. Shape distortions were found corresponding to Parks’ reports, but only in the absence of any visual percepts. In spite of the failure to support all of Parks’ conclusions, the effects are seen as very intriguing ones, and may have critical theoretical ramifications.     

Stimulus averaging and the context for judgment

Loudness judgments of stimulus sets composed of four bursts of noise were analyzed for two types of contextual effects: between-set and within-set. Experiment I demonstrated between-set effects for these four-component stimuli; they were shown to be similar to those found in previous work with single stimuli. Experiment 2 tested an averaging model for within-set contextual effects. The results were inconsistent with the model. One interpretation is that there are within-set effects and that these are caused by shifts in the effective range of stimuli. Alternative interpretations attribute the apparent contextual effects either to an averaging of physical values or to an inappropriate scale of judgment.     

A generalization of the interpoint distance model

Coombs and Kao have conjectured that, given the distances between a set of points representing persons and another representing objects, factor analytic methods can be used to recover the locations of the persons and objects. In the present paper it is proved that the conjecture applies, with some qualifications, to squared distances rather than distances themselves. Possible applications to scaling and to inventory responses are discussed.Most of the work that resulted in this paper was done while the authors were affiliated with Educational Testing Service. Portions of this paper were presented at the APA convention, St. Louis, 1962.     

Country roads,take me home… to my friends: How intelligence,population density,and friendship affect modern happiness

We propose the savanna theory of happiness, which suggests that it is not only the current consequences of a given situation but also its ancestral consequences that affect individuals’ life satisfaction and explains why such influences of ancestral consequences might interact with intelligence. We choose two varied factors that characterize basic differences between ancestral and modern life – population density and frequency of socialization with friends – as empirical test cases. As predicted by the theory, population density is negatively, and frequency of socialization with friends is positively, associated with life satisfaction. More importantly, the main associations of life satisfaction with population density and socialization with friends significantly interact with intelligence, and, in the latter case, the main association is reversed among the extremely intelligent. More intelligent individuals experience lower life satisfaction with more frequent socialization with friends. This study highlights the utility of incorporating evolutionary perspectives in the study of subjective well‐being.     

Attentional control mediates fearful responding to an ecologically valid stressor

Background and Objectives: Attentional control (AC) is defined as the ability to voluntarily shift and disengage attention and is thought to moderate the relationship between preexisting risk factors for fear and the actual experience of fear. Design: This longitudinal study elaborates on current models of AC by examining whether AC moderates or mediates effects of an ecologically valid stressor (a college examination) and also whether AC is predictive of state-like fear over longer timescales than previously reported. Methods: Based on previous findings, we hypothesized that AC would moderate the relationship between trait anxiety and affective distress in response to the examination stressor. We also tested a competing mediational model based on AC theory. These models were tested in two separate samples (sample 1, N = 219; sample 2, N = 129; Total N = 348) at two time points, at the beginning of a college semester in a large undergraduate class and 5 minutes prior to a college examination. Results: Mediation but not moderation of anxiety by AC was supported in both samples using multiple dependent measures. Conclusions: We conclude that AC may be useful in predicting affective distress in naturalistic settings, particularly in cases where anxiety is anticipatory.