Temporal expectancy modulates inhibition of return in a discrimination task

This research examined the influence of cue temporal predictability on inhibition of return (IOR) in a discrimination task. In exogenous attention experiments, the cue that summons attention is noninformative as to where the target will appear. However, it is predictive as to when it will appear. In previous work, it was demonstrated that temporal predictability does not influence IOR in detection tasks. In this work, it is shown that IOR is influenced by temporal predictability in discrimination tasks. Predictability was manipulated by using three stimulus onset asynchrony distributions: nonaging, aging, and accelerated aging. IOR was found when the cue predicted target appearance and was modulated by temporal information. In the nonaging distribution (in which the cue did not predict target appearance), there was no IOR.     

A dialogue among various cultures and its manifestation in stuttering therapy

This paper presents a historical retrospective of the evolution of the clinical aspects of stuttering, and refers to social, cultural, political, and economic variables that might have exerted an influence on this evolution, particularly in relation to the authors’ experience in Israel. The retrospective commences in the early decades of the 20th century, when speech and language pathology did not exist as a profession, and presents the major approaches to therapy in children and adults employed by clinicians throughout the century. We focused on the impact of the change that occurred in religious society vis-à-vis stuttering on the various aspects of stuttering therapy and research. The Israeli Stuttering Organization - AMBI - is discussed in order to explore the possible influence of social, cultural, and political variables. In addition, we devoted special attention to the changes that occurred in the therapist-client relationship since they are indicative of the change in the nature of the treatment. We elaborated on the need for dialogue as a major component in the therapy and as an important contributor to a successful outcome. The dialogue is also discussed in terms of Eastern philosophy. Future developments in the understanding of stuttering and its implications for therapy are presented and discussed.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (1) summarize the history of the clinical development of stuttering and explore the possible influence of social, cultural, political, and economic variables particularly in relation to Israel; (2) provide a new definition of stuttering; and (3) contrast the model of a dialogue as opposed to a monologue and explain its use in the therapist-client relationship.     

The interaction between alerting and executive control: Dissociating phasic arousal and temporal expectancy

In recent years, studies have revealed an interaction between two systems of attention—alerting and executive control. Specifically, warning cues increase the influence of cognitive conflict under certain conditions. One of the problems of interpreting this effect is that warning cues can trigger two processes simultaneously—a high arousal state and strategic temporal expectancy. The goal of the present study was to clarify which process underlies the increased congruency effects following a warning event. In two experiments, the influence of warning cues on flanker congruency was examined while controlling for the effects of temporal expectancy and arousal. Experiment 1 revealed a strong effect of warning cues on congruency, even when the warning cues were not temporally predictive. This effect was evident at two short cue-to-target intervals of 100 and 500 ms, but not following a 900-ms interval. Experiment 2 revealed that this effect was not altered even when the warning cues predicted with high certainty that the target would appear at long cue-to-target intervals (e.g., 900 ms). We suggest that the interaction between alerting and executive control reflects the involvement of a subcortical mechanism responsible for increasing arousal.     

Individual but not fragile: Individual differences in task control predict Stroop facilitation

The Stroop effect is composed of interference and facilitation effects. The facilitation is less stable and thus many times is referred to as a “fragile effect”. Here we suggest the facilitation effect is highly vulnerable to individual differences in control over the task conflict (between relevant color naming and irrelevant word reading in the Stroop task). We replicated previous findings of a significant correlation between stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) and Stroop interference, and also found a significant correlation between SSRT and the Stroop facilitation effect—participants with low inhibitory control (i.e., long SSRT) had no facilitation effect or even a reversed one. These results shed new light on the “fragile” facilitation effect and highlight the necessity of awareness of task conflict, especially in the Stroop task.     

Long trial durations normalise the interference effect and sequential updating during healthy aging

We examined the effect of a task-irrelevant dimension on response times in young adults and seniors. We used the Simon task with congruent trials where the target and manual response were on the same side, incongruent trials where the target and response were on opposite sides, and neutral trials where the target appeared along the vertical meridian. We observed two age-related effects. First, there was a larger congruency effect in senior participants that was driven by greater interference; namely, their responses were slower on incongruent relative to neutral trials. Second, there was a Gratton effect; namely, a diminished Simon effect was found in young adults but not in seniors when the preceding trial was incongruent. However, these effects of aging were normalised when the inter-trial interval was increased; the Simon effect and interference were reduced and a Gratton effect appeared for seniors. We conclude that aging may impair the ability to quickly adapt to changing environmental circumstances when they require reformulating current behavioral strategies.     

Evidence for task conflict in the Stroop effect

C. M. MacLeod and P. A. MacDonald (2000) suggested that congruent and incongruent Stroop stimuli cause more task conflict than neutral stimuli because the anterior cingulate cortex is more activated with these stimuli. This study investigated behavioral expression for this pattern. Experiment 1 reduced task conflict control by increasing the proportion of nonword neutrals. Additionally, half the trials had conflict or neutral cues. The control reduction revealed the task conflict. For noncued trials, response time was longer for congruent stimuli than for neutral stimuli (reverse facilitation effect). In addition, response time for congruent stimuli was longer when stimuli were uncued vs. cued. Experiment 2 increased task conflict control by changing the neutral stimuli to noncolor words. Consequently, the task conflict expression disappeared.     

Numerical distance effect in developmental dyscalculia

Children in third and fourth grades suffering from developmental dyscalculia (DD) and typically developing children were asked to compare numbers to a standard. In two separate blocks, they were asked to compare a number between 1 and 9 to 5, or a two-digit number between 10 and 99 to 55. In the single-digit comparisons, DD children were comparable to the control group in reaction time but showed a difference in error rates. In the two-digit number comparisons, DD children presented a larger distance effect than the controls. In addition, they were more influenced by the problem size than controls were. Assuming an analog representation of quantities, this suggests that quantities are less differentiated in those with DD than in typically developing children.     

Psychological Time in Later Life: Implications for Counseling

Psychological time consists of cognitive constructs, images, and symbolic representations. It has different dimensions such as the experience of time, time perspective, attitudes and beliefs toward time, and the individual's behavior relating to time. Psychological time undergoes changes throughout the life span and is an integral part of the psychological developmental processes. In later life, it may be particularly dissonant with environmental rhythms and require re‐integration of the individual's past, present, and future. This article suggests several guidelines for counseling practice that address the many facets of psychological time in later life and their implications for the mental health and well‐being of older people.     

The development of internal representations of magnitude and their association with Arabic numerals.

Developmental aspects of number concepts were evaluated using participants from the beginning and end of first grade (6-7 years old), third and fifth grades (7-11 years old), and university (22 years old). Participants evaluated the numerical value or physical size of stimuli varying along both dimensions. The numerical distance effect appeared in all groups. In contrast, the size congruity effect started to appear only at the end of first grade. Based on our results, a model of internal representation of magnitude claiming that there are two different representations was propose. At the beginning of first grade children can automatically access only one of these representations and only from the end of first grade can they access both of these representations.     

Temperament and play interaction behavior across infancy

Temporal stability and convergent validity of infant temperament ratings and play interaction behaviors were examined across early to late infancy. Stability was noted for the temperament dimensions activity, rhythmicity, intensity, mood, and persistence. Stability also was noted for the infant play interaction behaviors looking, smiling, and vocalizing. In addition, convergent validity was noted for attentive-affective behaviors and comparable temperament ratings; for example, gaze aversion and nondistractability, and distress brow behavior and negative mood. Generally easier temperament infants were noted to vocalize more and to cry less frequently during their play interactions.