Stability in schizophrenia symptoms over time: findings from the Mount Sinai Pilgrim Psychiatric Center Longitudinal Study

This study examined the stability of symptoms of schizophrenia over time, focusing on the stability of symptom structure. Symptoms were assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). The sample consisted of 215 chronic patients followed up for as long as 4 years. Exploratory factor analysis identified 6 factors. Several statistical techniques were used to examine the stability of these symptoms, including longitudinal confirmatory factor analysis. Low-to-moderate rank-order stability and high absolute stability of the factors were found, with the structure of the PANSS-assessed symptoms consistent over time. The results demonstrate that despite changes in the severity of symptoms in individual patients with schizophrenia, the factor structure and interrelatedness of symptoms have considerable stability over time.     

A modified version of the unique cue theory accounts for olfactory compound processing in honeybees

We investigated the capability of honeybees to discriminate between single odorants, binary olfactory mixtures, and ternary olfactory mixtures in olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex. In Experiment 1, three single odorants (A+, B+, and C+) and three binary mixtures of these odors (AB+, AC+, and BC+) were reinforced while the ternary compound, consisting of all three odors (ABC-), was nonreinforced. In Experiment 2, only one single odorant (A+) and one binary olfactory compound (BC+) were reinforced while the ternary compound (ABC-) consisting of the single odor and the binary compound was nonreinforced. We studied whether bees can solve these problems and whether the course of differentiation can be predicted by the unique cue theory, a modified unique cue theory, or Pearce's configural theory. Honeybees were not able to differentiate reinforced from nonreinforced stimuli in Experiment 1. However, summation to ABC observed at the beginning of training contradicts the predictions of Pearce's configural theory. In Experiment 2, differentiation between the single odorant A and the ternary compound developed more easily than between the binary compound BC and ABC. This pattern of differentiation is in line with a modified unique cue theory and Pearce's configural theory. Summation to ABC at the beginning of training, however, again was at odds with Pearce's configural theory. Thus, olfactory compound processing in honeybees can best be explained by a modified unique cue theory.     

The impact of verbal feedback about blushing on social discomfort and facial blood flow during embarrassing tasks

To investigate whether verbal feedback about blushing influences subsequent social discomfort or blushing itself, changes in facial blood flow and ratings of blushing and embarrassment were investigated in high (N=28) and low scorers (N=28) on the Blushing Propensity scale while singing and reading aloud, and while listening to audiotapes of their performance. After each task half of the participants were told that they had blushed, and the rest were told that they had not blushed. Blood flow increased progressively in participants with high blushing propensity scores who were given "blushing" feedback, but not in the other participants. This finding suggests that expecting to blush may become a self-fulfilling prophecy. Verbal feedback about blushing strongly influenced subsequent social discomfort, and mimicked the effects of blushing propensity on ratings of embarrassment and blushing intensity. In sum, the findings support the view that preconceptions about blushing propensity are shaped by past learning experiences, that concern about blushing is a major source of discomfort in embarrassing situations, and that these concerns are often unrelated to the actual intensity of blushing.     

Orientation specificity in spatial memory: what makes a path different from a map of the path?

Three studies investigated the factors that lead spatial information to be stored in an orientation-specific versus orientation-free manner. In Experiment 1, we replicated the findings of Presson and Hazelrigg (1984) that learning paths from a small map versus learning the paths directly from viewing a world leads to different functional characteristics of spatial memory. Whether the route display was presented as the path itself or as a large map of the path did not affect how the information was stored. In Experiment 2, we examined the effects of size of stimulus display, size of world, and scale transformations on how spatial information in maps is stored and available for use in later judgments. In Experiment 3, we examined the effect of size on the orientation specificity of the spatial coding of paths that are viewed directly. The major determinant of whether spatial information was stored and used in an orientation-specific or an orientation-free manner was the size of the display. Small displays were coded in an orientation-specific way, whereas very large displays were coded in a more orientation-free manner. These data support the view that there are distinct spatial representations, one more perceptual and episodic and one more integrated and model-like, that have developed to meet different demands faced by mobile organisms.     

Secretarial and management students: Attitudes,attributes, and career choice considerations

Secretarial and management students were compared on characteristics that have differentiated between traditional and nontraditional career women. Fifty-five female secretarial students and 55 female management (bachelor of commerce) students completed the following measures: (a) the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire (WOFO); (b) the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS); (c) the Powerful Others, Personal Control, and Chance Scales (I-E Scale); (d) the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ); and (e) a measure of career choice considerations. The groups differed on two aspects of the WOFO (competitiveness and desire to master difficult intellectual challenges), and on Personal Control, sex role orientation (PAQ), and career choice considerations. The results are discussed with respect to sex role socialization and the denigration of secretarial work.     

The influence of sex and sex role orientation on sexual coercion

One hundred female and 77 male college students completed a questionnaire in which they indicated whether they had ever used physical or verbal coercive strategies to initiate sexual behavior with a partner, or had ever engaged in sexual behavior in response to a partner's coercive initiatives. Results showed that males are far more likely than females to initiate coerced sexual behavior and females are more likely to be victimized. In addition, masculine persons reported using coercive strategies more than other sex role orientation types. However, this was due principally to the fact that males were masculine types much more frequently than females. Therefore, sex (that is, being male or female) seems a more critical factor in determining, initiating, or responding to sexual coercion than sex role orientation.     

Measuring depression in children: a multimethod assessment investigation

The present investigation examined measures for the assessment of depressive symptomatology in children, as well as two related constructs (self-esteem and anxiety). The sample consisted of 166 elementary school children from grades 3 through 6. Two self-report depression measures, the Children's Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1979) and the Child Depression Scale (Reynolds, in press), as well as anxiety and self-esteem scales, were completed by the children. Parents (mothers and fathers) evaluated their children on the depression and anxiety scales from the Personality Inventory for Children (Wirt, Lachar, Klinedinst, & Seat, 1977), and teachers provided global ratings of depression and academic performance. The results support the reliability and validity of both self-report children depression measures. Data obtained on the parent report measure do not recommend its use at this time for assessing depression in children, while results on teachers' global ratings of depression provide some evidence that teachers may be a good source of information regarding depression in children.The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous assistance provided by Al Holmquist, principal of Mazomanie Elementary School, and James Clark, principal of Oregon Elementary School, and their teachers. This research was funded in part by a Spencer Foundation Grant to the first author, through the School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The writing of this article was facilitated by a Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation grant (135–1503) to the first author.     

The eyes have it: Exposure times and saccadic movements in visual half-field experiments

Several tachistoscopic visual half-field experiments using exposure times in excess of 150 msec have been reported and arguments have been put forth justifying this procedure. An experiment was done investigating visual field accuracy under conditions where eye movement was allowed, following parafoveal exposure. Two control experiments were done to evaluate the viewing conditions. When eye movement is permitted, accuracy in both visual fields reaches 100%. It is concluded that visual field differences found with exposure times greater than 150 msec are due to the active cooperation of the subjects and not due to the justifications advanced by experimenters using long exposure times.