Functions of the environment in behavioral evolution

This paper explores some of the ways in which the environment functions with respect to behavior within an explanatory framework analogous to that of evolutionary biology. In both the behavioral and organic domains, the environment functions differently with respect to individual occurrences and evolutionary units. Within the behavioral domain, the problem of accounting for an occurrence of an operant instance differs from that of accounting for the existence of the operant unit of which the instance is a part. Maintaining these distinctions in levels of analysis within the behavioral domain, we focus first on operant units and operant instances as products of evolutionary processes occurring in the behavioral domain and second upon the causal role of the environment with respect to the existence of operant units and the occurrence of operant instances. The environment's function is selective with respect to origin, maintenance, suppression, and extinction of behavioral populations. At the level of operant instances, the environment has instantiating functions-evocative or alterative. Evocative functions are exemplified by discriminative relations, and alterative functions include both conditional and motivative relations. Implications are considered regarding extension of the analogy to more complex behavior-environment relations.     

Videotaping effects on the behaviors of low income mothers and their infants during floor-play interactions

Interaction behaviors and language measures of low income mothers and their 12-month-old infants were compared for floor-play situations in which the mother was aware and unaware of being videotaped. When the mothers were aware of being videotaped, they were more proximal to their infants, offered and demonstrated toys more frequently, engaged in more frequent interaction games, vocalized more frequently, emitted a greater number of words as well as declarative and imperative utterances, and their infants engaged in more constructive play. Combining the analysis of variance and correlational analyses results suggested that the verbal behaviors of mothers were inflated and their non-verbal behaviors were distorted when they were aware of being videotaped. The implications of these data for the use of videotaping as an assessment and intervention tool are discussed.     

Variations of the Bender-Gestalt Test: implications for training and practice

Although the Bender-Gestalt Visual Motor Test has been a popular and influential clinical assessment instrument for the last half century, authoritative opinion and a substantial research literature are often inconsistent or contradictory. This paper documents variations in designs, administration procedures, forms, and applications to particular populations. A careful review of scoring systems indicates the current status of objective approaches as contrasted with interpretation that is global, intuitive, and subjective. Some implications of these variations and interpretive procedures for training and assessment practice are discussed. The major conclusions of the review are summarized in seven points.     

Mothers' Perceptions of Infants Labelled ‘Depressed’

Forty-four depressed and non-depressed mothers participated in a videotaped interaction with their own infant and then rated the videotape using the Infant Stereotyping Scale and the Interaction Rating Scale. In addition, one half of the mothers rated a videotape of an unfamiliar infant who was labelled psychologically ‘depressed’ and the other half rated a videotape of the same infant with no label given. Both the depressed and non-depressed mothers rated the ‘depressed’ labelled infant more negatively than the non-labelled infant on the attributes of physical potency, cognitive competence, sociability and difficult behaviour. Physical appearance was the only rating that was not biased by the ‘depressed’ label. Mothers' ratings of their own infants were more positive than their ratings of the non-labelled stimulus infant. Depressed mothers did not see their infants more negatively except on one rating. They rated the physical appearance of their own infant more negatively than non-depressed mothers.     

Neonatal stress and coping in intensive care

Examples are given of research on (a) stressful procedures and assessments in the neonatal intensive care nursery and (b) natural caregiving stimulation and self-comforting behaviors that alleviate these stressful experiences. The data from the studies on stressful procedures and assessments revealed that (a) weaning from mechanical ventilation was associated with increased plasma cortisol levels; (b) heelsticks and tube insertions for gavage feedings were accompanied by decreases in oxygen tension (TcPO2); and (c) Brazelton neonatal behavior assessments were followed by increased cortisol levels and decreased growth hormone levels. To alleviate stress, various interventions were tried including caregiver comforting techniques and giving the neonates opportunities to comfort themselves by sucking on pacifiers. The caregiver intervention studies revealed that (a) a simple placement of hands on the head and abdomen of the NICU neonate resulted in a lesser need for oxygen and (b) massaging the NICU neonate resulted in greater weight gain and earlier discharge. In those studies that explored the infant's self-comforting, nonnutritive sucking behavior, the following results emerged: (a) sucking on pacifiers during heelsticks resulted in less crying and lower heart rate and respiration and (b) sucking on pacifiers during tube feedings resulted in smoother bottle feedings later and in greater weight gain. Thus, it appears that several forms of cost-effective interventions can alleviate these stressful procedures and facilitate infant growth and development.     

Infants of “depressed” mothers interact better with their nondepressed fathers

To determine whether infants of “depressed” mothers interact better with their nondepressed fathers, twenty-six 3- to 6-month-old infants were videotaped during face-to-face interactions with their parents. The “depressed” mother group consisted of twelve 3- to 6-month-old infants and their “depressed” mothers and nondepressed fathers. The control group was composed of 14 nondepressed mothers and nondepressed fathers and their 3- to 6-month-old infants. In the “depressed” mother group, the nondepressed fathers received better interaction ratings than the “depressed” mothers. In turn, the infants received better interaction ratings when they interacted with their nondepressed fathers than with their “depressed” mothers. In contrast, nondepressed fathers and mothers and their infants in the control group did not differ on any of their interaction ratings. These findings suggest that infants' difficult interaction behaviors noted during interactions with their “depressed” mothers may not extend to their nondepressed fathers. The data are discussed with respect to the notion that nondepressed fathers may “buffer” the effects of maternal depression on infant interaction behavior.     

Fathers' interactions with their high-risk infants

Fathers' face-to-face interactions with their 4-month-old high-risk infants were compared to mothers' interactions with the same infants and to those interactions of fathers and mothers of normal infants. The high-risk infants were less attentive and less affectively responsive than normal infants, and their mothers were more active. Fathers of both high-risk and normal infants engaged in more game playing and laughed more frequently than mothers during interactions. Although the behaviors of the normal and high-risk infants differed, as did the behaviors of mothers interacting with them, the fathers engaged in similar amounts of activity, smiling, laughing and playing games with normal and high-risk infants. Fathers may be less disturbed than mothers by their high-risk infants' lesser responsivity.