Learning to find the opponent: an ethological analysis of the behavior of paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis) in intra- and interspecific encounters.

In Experiment 1, 15 behavior patterns of male paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis; n = 72) toward a male conspecific, a male of another species, or no stimulus were recorded, both in home and novel situations. In Experiment 2, the same behaviors were recorded in a runway, and the same stimuli were used as reinforcers in the goal box (n = 18). A typical learning curve was seen when the subject found a male paradise fish in the goal box, learning was followed by apparent extinction when another species was found in the goal box, and few signs of learning were seen when the goal box was empty. Performance of the fish in both experiments can be accounted for by a strong aggressive motivation, a less strong but clear general curiosity, and habituation to the experimental procedure. In contrast to recent assertions in the literature, we conclude that aggressive behavior clearly can serve as a reinforcer in an instrumental learning situation.     

Motivational Readiness,Self-Efficacy and Decision-Making for Exercise1

Exercise has important health benefits, but a large proportion of the population is physically inactive. We examined the prevalence of stages of readiness to exercise and their relationship to self-efficacy and to the costs and benefits of exercising in samples of 1093 employees in and around Providence, Rhode Island, and 801 employees in Adelaide, Australia. In both samples, 40.6% of respondents had not yet begun to take action (not thinking about starting to exercise or thinking about it but not doing it), while 59.4% were at some phase of action (exercising some, starting to exercise regularly, exercising regularly). Scores on self-efficacy items and cost-and-benefit items significantly differentiated employees at extreme stages. In contrast with those who exercised regularly, employees who had not yet begun to exercise had little confidence in their ability to exercise and saw exercising as having nearly as many costs as it had benefits. There is the potential to enhance the impact of exercise interventions by targeting them so as to address factors related to these different stages of readiness to exercise.     

Differential effects of massage and heelstick procedures on transcutaneous oxygen tension in preterm neonates

The present study investigated the differential effects of heelsticks and tactile-kinesthetic massage on transcutaneous oxygen tension (TcPO₂) in preterm infants. The sample was comprised of 37 stabilized preterm neonates from the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. During the heelstick procedure, TcPO₂ significantly declined an average of 14 mmHg. When compared to the tactile-kinesthetic massage, TcPO₂ levels during the heelstick (M = 39.8) were significantly lower than during the stimulation (M = 72.8). Mean TcPO₂ levels remained clinically safe during the four massage sessions evaluated. The TcPO₂ levels during kinesthetic stimulation were somewhat more varied, and movement and pressurization of the TcPO₂ electrode were investigated as possible artifactual explanations for this phenomenon. Overall, the findings indicate that social forms of touch such as tactile-kinesthetic massage do not appear to have a medically compromising effect on TcPO₂ in the preterm neonate. These findings are evaluated in relation to the “minimal touch” policy, and implications for future handling of the stabilized preterm neonate are discussed.     

Pecking and feeding in chicks

Pecking is not controlled by nutritional state in a newly hatched chick, but by 3 days posthatch it normally is. This paper tests the hypothesis that first a chick must learn that pecking leads to ingestion; then, other (nonlearned) processes are automatically responsible for differential pecking rates to nutritive and nonnutritive items. The first experiment shows that experience pecking and ingesting sawdust is sufficient for differential pecking to develop. The second experiment shows that swallowing without pecking (using a force-feeding technique) does not lead to differential pecking. The third experiment shows that pecking without swallowing (using sand glued down to the floor) also does not lead to differential pecking. Finally, the last experiment shows that food deprivation affects pecking rate only after pecking and ingestion have been associated. These results support the above hypothesis that pecking followed by ingestion leads to the “attachment” of the pecking response to the feeding system. Motivational independence of pecking and the hunger system, the association of pecking with ingestion, and the development of behavior systems are discussed. It is concluded that the function of a behavior may not be related to its causes.     

A role theoretical interpretation of personality scale item responses

This paper proposes that test-taking behavior can be regarded as a kind of self-presentation formally identical to that which goes on in most social interaction. It follows from this analysis that the success of such self-presentations should be affected by the actor's role-taking ability or empathy. Evidence is presented that supports this conjecture; the paper then suggests that role-taking ability may limit in a systematic manner validity coefficients in much assessment research.     

The Politics of Identity and the Experience of Learning: Insights for Pluralism from Western Educational History

The eight short explorations in the first part of this paper attempt to identify some crucial developments in the history of Western learning which eclipsed pluralist educational practices in their (Socratic) infancy and thereafter, and which contributed to the widespread employment of education as a force for cultural uniformity, or assumed superiority. Drawing together the lessons of the first part with contemporary insights from hermeneutic philosophy, the second part sets forth briefly the promising educational possibilities for human self-understanding and co-existence which are furnished by a newly-inspired reclamation of the long-eclipsed heritage.     

Multifactorial pathways facilitate resilience among kindergarteners at risk for dyslexia: A longitudinal behavioral and neuroimaging study

Recent efforts have focused on screening methods to identify children at risk for dyslexia as early as preschool/kindergarten. Unfortunately, while low sensitivity leads to under‐identification of at‐risk children, low specificity can lead to over‐identification, resulting in inaccurate allocation of limited educational resources. The present study focused on children identified as at‐risk in kindergarten who do not subsequently develop poor reading skills to specify factors associated with better reading outcomes among at‐risk children. Early screening was conducted in kindergarten and a subset of children was tracked longitudinally until second grade. Potential protective factors were evaluated at cognitive‐linguistic, environmental, and neural levels. Relative to at‐risk kindergarteners with subsequent poor reading, those with typical reading outcomes were characterized by significantly higher socioeconomic status (SES), speech production accuracy, and structural organization of the posterior right‐hemispheric superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF). A positive association between structural organization of the right SLF and subsequent decoding skills was found to be specific to at‐risk children and not observed among typical controls. Among at‐risk children, several kindergarten‐age factors were found to significantly contribute to the prediction of subsequent decoding skills: white matter organization in the posterior right SLF, age, gender, SES, and phonological awareness. These findings suggest that putative compensatory mechanisms are already present by the start of kindergarten. The right SLF, in conjunction with the cognitive‐linguistic and socioeconomic factors identified, may play an important role in facilitating reading development among at‐risk children. This study has important implications for approaches to early screening, and assessment strategies for at‐risk children.     

Promotion of empirically validated psychotherapies in counselling psychology

The extent to which psychotherapies have empirical support is a long-standing and controversial issue in counselling psychology. Recently, the American Psychological Association Division of Clinical Psychology (Division 12) established a task force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures. The role of the task force was to define empirically validated treatment and make recommendations in relation to methods for educating mental health professionals, third party payers and the public about effective psychotherapies. The findings and recommendations of the task force are brought to the attention of readers. We believe that counselling psychologists should be proactive in the promotion of empirically validated psychotherapies.     

Contextualizing rape: Reviewing sequelae and proposing a culturally inclusive ecological model of sexual assault recovery

Consistent evidence demonstrates that many women who encounter the trauma of rape experience a range of both acute reactions and chronic psychological sequelae. This article reviews both the short- and long-term psychological adjustment issues associated with rape. In addition, we propose a culturally inclusive ecological model of sexual assault recovery (CIEMSAR), which integrates and extends existing models to better examine the complex factors leading to differential postrape adjustment. Important components of the CIEMSAR are placing rape in the broader sociocultural context of the United States and explicated socioracial and ethnic factors influencing the recovery process. The five primary factors of CIEMSAR are outlined, including (a) macrosystem or sociocultural context factors; microsystem/individual factors such as (b) assault characteristics, (c) person variables, (d) coping responses; and mesosystems factors such as (e) social-support systems. Suggestions for future research are also provided.