Look into my eyes: Gaze direction and person memory

The current research considered the effects of gaze direction on a fundamental aspect of social cogition: person memory. It was anticipated that a person's direction of gaze (i.e., direct or averted) would impact his or her subsequent memorability, such that recognition would be enhanced for targets previously displaying direct gaze. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with faces displaying either direct or averted gaze in a person‐classification (i.e., conceptual) task. Then, in a surprise memory test, they were required to report whether a presented face had been seen before. As expected, a recognition advantage was observed for targets displaying direct gaze during the initial classification task. This finding was replicated and extended in a second experiment in which participants initially reported the spatial location (i.e., perceptual task) of each face. We consider the implications of these findings for basic aspects of social‐cognitive functioning and person perception.     

A Psychophysiological Investigation of the Rorschach Colour and Form Determinants

The Rorschach colour-emotion and form-control hypotheses were investigated by determining whether subjects would react differently psychophysiologically while giving colour dominant or form responses. Slides of the Rorschach plates no. II, III, V, VIII, IX and X were presented to 42 subjects while respiration (as control only) vasomotor changes, skin resistance and heart rate were recorded. All physiological changes (except respiration) found in conjunction with Rorschach C, CF, FC, and F responses were transformed to Lacey's autonomic lability scores. Some indications of different physiological reactions to colour and form were found. The results indicated the possible existence of “emotional” and “controlled” groups of subjects who tended to react differently, verbally and physiologically, to the Rorschach stimuli.     

Use of correlational data to examine the effects of risk perceptions on precautionary behavior

Abstract

The idea that perceptions of high personal risk lead people to adopt precautionary behavior (the “motivational hypothesis”) is mainly tested with correlational data. A review of studies from selective journals reveals a high proportion with methodological and conceptual problems that make them invalid as tests of this hypthesis. Three problems arc emphasized: (1) the misinterpretation of correlations from cross-sectional studies as testing the motivational hypothesis when they actually indicate the accuracy of risk perceptions; (2) the failure to control for prior behavior in prospective studies; and (3) the we of prospective studies in situations of little behavior change. Path models are used to help explain these problems. Recommendations for selecting research designs and for calculating the least problematic correlations are given, along with warnings about the many assumptions needed to interpret even these correlations.

Summary

Overall, 27 of the 61 cross-sectional analyses listed in Tables 2 and 3 were conducted using clearly inappropriate variables. The appropriateness of the remaining correlations rest on one or two rather questionable assumptions: (1) that people do not distort their risk perceptions to justify their behavior or intentions and (2) that negative screening results a problem like breast cancer do not affect perceptions of future risk. The correlations preferred for testing the motivational hypothesis are listed in Table 4.

Summary

When the amount of precautionary behavior in a population has become relatively stable and behavior at time t+1 is well-predicted from behavior at time t, no independent variable other than B_t will have much predictive value in a prospective design. To avoid this problem, research should be conducted at a time when a substantial change in behavior is occurring, such as soon after the risk is recognized. If this is not possible, interventions that lead people to change their behavior (e.g., by raising risk perceptions or by lowering barriers to action) are required. In effect, they remove the system from equilibrium and allow one to watch what happens as people seek a new equilibrium. The least satisfactory choice is to use a cross-sectional correlation, such as R _H?B, that represents a summation over previous changes in behavior. The assumptions required to interpret such a correlation have been discussed earlier.     

Suffering Passion,Together: Commentary on Paper by Peter Shabad

In this appreciative discussion of Shabad's paper, the author suggests an expanded role for intrapsychic conflict around the passionate drive to grow and change. At the same time, he suggests that the parent or analyst may need to “suffer passion” him or herself in order to help the patient or child evolve in this way.     

Knowledge and Power in Plato’s Political Thought

Abstract

Plato justifies the concentration and exercise of power for persons endowed with expertise in political governance. This article argues that this justification takes two distinctly different sets of arguments. The first is what I shall call his ‘ideal political philosophy’ described primarily in the Republic as rule by philosopher‐kings wielding absolute authority over their subjects. Their authority stems solely from their comprehension of justice, from which they make political judgements on behalf of their city‐state. I call the second set of arguments Plato’s ‘practical political philosophy’ underlying his later thought, where absolute rule by philosopher‐kings is undermined by the impure character of all political knowledge. Whereas the complete comprehension of justice sanctions the absolute political power of those with this expertise, partial knowledge of justice disallows for such a large investment of power. Plato’s practical political philosophy argues for a mixed theory of governance fusing the institutions of monarchy with democracy in the best practical city‐state. Thus, Plato comes to realize the insurmountable difficulties of his ideal political thought, preferring a more practical political philosophy instead.     

Toward a better understanding of the effects of hindrance and challenge stressors on work behavior

This study investigated the processes whereby hindrance and challenge stressors may affect work behavior. Three mechanisms were examined to explain the differential effects these stressors have demonstrated: job satisfaction, strains, and work self-efficacy. A model is proposed in which both types of stressors will result in increases in strains, but that job satisfaction is primarily involved in the relationship between hindrance stressors and citizenship behavior, and efficacy is involved in the relationship between challenge stressors and job performance. Although the results generally supported the dual-stressor framework showing meaningful relationships to the work outcomes through the proposed processes, the link between work self-efficacy and job performance was not significant. This model was analyzed using multi-source data collected from 143 employees from a variety of organizational settings. Implications for the conceptualization of stressors and the development of interventions are discussed.     

Enhancing Parenting Skills Among Nonresident African American Fathers as a Strategy for Preventing Youth Risky Behaviors

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a theoretically based, culturally specific family intervention designed to prevent youth risky behaviors by influencing the parenting attitudes and behaviors of nonresident African American fathers and the parent–child interactions, intentions to avoid violence, and aggressive behaviors of their preadolescent sons. A sample of 158 intervention and 129 comparison group families participated. ANCOVA results indicated that the intervention was promising for enhancing parental monitoring, communication about sex, intentions to communicate, race-related socialization practices, and parenting skills satisfaction among fathers. The intervention was also beneficial for sons who reported more monitoring by their fathers, improved communication about sex, and increased intentions to avoid violence. The intervention was not effective in reducing aggressive behaviors among sons. Findings are discussed from a family support perspective, including the need to involve nonresident African American fathers in youth risky behavior prevention efforts.     

Neurophysiological indices of free recall memory biases in major depression: The impact of stimulus arousal and valence

This study examined differential impact of the valence and arousal characteristics of stimuli on memory biases and brain activity in major depressive disorder (MDD) and non-depressed control participants. P300 and slow wave (SW) components of the event-related brain potential (ERP) were recorded in 18 MDD and 18 control individuals during the encoding of positive and negative, high and low arousal words in a free recall task. Control participants demonstrated expected enhanced memory for positive stimuli that was accompanied by a corresponding increase in SW ERP components. These effects were not seen in the MDD participants. Rather, memory biases for negative information in MDD were only observed for low arousal words and were not reflected in ERP amplitudes. This study suggests that the inconsistency in the MDD memory bias literature may be related to the arousing nature of the stimuli incorporated in the study.     

Hemispheric specialization for emotional expression: a reexamination of results from intracarotid administration of sodium amobarbital

Emotional and behavioral responses to sodium amobarbital injection were examined in 44 epilepsy surgery candidates. Thirty-three emotional reactions occurred in 26 patients, 44% of the reactions following right hemisphere injection and 32% after injection of the left hemisphere. Among all patients examined, laughter/elated mood was statistically more frequent following right hemisphere injection while crying was statistically associated with left hemisphere injections. These observed effects were not related to amobarbital dose, sex, bilateral hemispheric inactivation (angiographic crossflow), general cognitive status, or side of seizure onset. These results support differing specialization of emotional expression in the right and left cerebral hemispheres and their subcortical connections.     

A BASIC program for computing Cronbach’s accuracy components

Accuracy is a measure of the extent of agreement between a rater’s ratings and the ratings of experts or the responses of ratees. Cronbach (1955) argued that accuracy research should focus on components of accuracy rather than on an overall measure. However, complex calculations are required to compute Cronbach’s accuracy components. A program is presented that provides a convenient way of computing all four components of accuracy (elevation, differential elevation, stereotype accuracy, and differential accuracy), as well as the associated correlation components, on an Apple Macintosh computer. The standard Macintosh interface is used to obtain all necessary information. The program will read data in a standard text file and will run faster on computers with math coprocessors.