Food-related stimuli increase desire to eat in hungry and satiated human subjects

In the present study, the effect of food-related cues on the desire to eat chocolate in hungry and satiated subjects was investigated. Subjects (n=46) were randomly assigned to either a hungry or satiated group and then assigned to a group receiving one of the following stimuli: taste (2 M&Ms), sight (a photograph of M&Ms), cognition (a passage describin M&Ms), or control (no stimulus). In each testing session, subjects rated their desire to eat chocolate before and after the 90-s presentation of the particular stimulus. Each subject was then given a half pound of M&Ms so that actual consumption could also be measured. Results indicated that, following the presentation of the sight and taste stimuli, the subjects’ desire to eat chocolate was significantly increased. Furthermore, no differences in chocolate consumption due to state of hunger or type of food-related stimulus presented were found.     

Higher order encoding: Process or state?

While prior data has seemed to suggest that learning occurs as a result of encoding information into higher order memory units, rather than the formation of interitem associations, the process whereby the encoding occurs has been left relatively unspecified. Two encoding models were outlined which differed to the extent that one assumed that encoding occurred as an active process after the specific items of information were registered in memory, while the other assumed that information is initially registered in memory in the encoded state. The results from two studies seem to offer the most support for the second of these two models.     

The comprehension and recall of similes as a function of context and cue

Participants read 56 sentence pairs and attempted to judge if the context sentence of each pair was related to the figurative message of the following simile. Reaction times and error rates both indicated that (a) participants could judge subject-related contexts more easily that predicate-related contexts, (b) they could judge irrelevant contexts more easily than misleading ones, and (c) these two effects were relatively independent of one another. The cued recall of similes previously paired with relevant or misleading contexts was affected by both a context effect (contexts containing a simile's predicate led to better recall than those containing its subject) and, even more strongly, a cuing effect (the simile's predicate was a better cue than its subject), whereas the cued recall of similes previously paired with irrelevant contexts was affected only by the context effect. In no case was there evidence of an interaction that would have indicated that a cue would be more potent if it referred to the same simile term as had the context.     

The memorial structure of organized sequences

Subjects were asked to memorize a sequence of nine consonants which were grouped into three groups of three letters each (e.g., SBJ FQL ZNG). After learning the sequence, they were presented with single letters, letter pairs, or letter triples and asked to indicate if the probe item appeared in the memorized sequence. The latency results suggest that subjects engage in a linear self-terminating memory search in which the items from one chunk are retrieved from memory as the items from the immediately preceding chunk are being scanned. When the probe consisted of more than one item, the subjects were slowed in their comparison if the letters came from different chunks (e.g., JF vs. FQ in the above illustration), and the number of letters in the probe also influenced the reaction time. Neither of those effects were obtained if all the letters in the probe came from the same chunk, and that would seem to suggest that the probe items from the same chunk were compared in parallel to the letters in the memory item, while items from different chunks were compared serial.     

Sex roles and criminality: Science or conventional wisdom?

It is argued that past theoretical work on female crime and delinquency has employed and built upon a set of nonrational sexist assumptions which have rarely been explicitly articulated in the work itself. And yet the theory on female misconduct cannot be adequately comprehended without an awareness of this accompanying set of assumptions. Until these ideas are critically examined and subjected to empirical scrutiny, progress will not be made in understanding female criminality and the allegation that it is on the increase.We are grateful to Tom Hood, Jennifer James, and Jeanie Shover for helpful comments on the initial draft of this paper. A very different version was read at the meeting of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, San Francisco, August 24, 1975.     

Differential predictability of females and males

This study examined the existence of sex differences in validity coefficients from a variety of different types of tests. It was found that female validities significantly exceeded male validities by .04 correlational units. When the validities were broken down by predictor categories, no significant differences were observed between males and females on either personality or high school background measures; and female validities exceeded male validities on tests of abstract reasoning, clerical abilities, information, mathematical abilities, verbal abilities, and composite scores from multiple tests. Implications of these findings are discussed.Use of the Michigan State University computing facilities was made possible through support, in part, from the National Science Foundation.     

Speech perception and short-term memory deficits in persistent developmental speech disorder

Children with developmental speech disorders may have additional deficits in speech perception and/or short-term memory. To determine whether these are only transient developmental delays that can accompany the disorder in childhood or persist as part of the speech disorder, adults with a persistent familial speech disorder were tested on speech perception and short-term memory. Nine adults with a persistent familial developmental speech disorder without language impairment were compared with 20 controls on tasks requiring the discrimination of fine acoustic cues for word identification and on measures of verbal and nonverbal short-term memory. Significant group differences were found in the slopes of the discrimination curves for first formant transitions for word identification with stop gaps of 40 and 20 ms with effect sizes of 1.60 and 1.56. Significant group differences also occurred on tests of nonverbal rhythm and tonal memory, and verbal short-term memory with effect sizes of 2.38, 1.56, and 1.73. No group differences occurred in the use of stop gap durations for word identification. Because frequency-based speech perception and short-term verbal and nonverbal memory deficits both persisted into adulthood in the speech-impaired adults, these deficits may be involved in the persistence of speech disorders without language impairment.