TRANSITIONS IN CHILDREN'S ROLES AND CAPABILITIES*

Stage theories and empirical studies have concentrated on a few periods of childhood (e.g., age 5 to 7 years) as important times of transition. On the basis of ethnographic suggestions that the age period 8 to 10 years also involves interesting changes, the authors carried out a search of published empirical studies for findings of transitions in capabilities at 8 to 10 years. An annotated bibliography is provided summarizing the studies found in a 5-year period in three journals. The authors discuss possibilities for characterizing the transition at age 8 to 10, as well as how such a transition meshes with the concept of stage.     

Effects of a token reinforcement system on journal reshelving

A token reinforcement program involving two levels of token value and backup reinforcers to increase journal reshelving behavior in a large university library was experimentally evaluated. Results showed that instructions (in which signs asked users to reshelve journals) had no impact. By contrast, token reinforcement contingent on reshelving behavior led to a marked increase in journals reshelved. A return to instructions-only conditions, when data were corrected for library usage, showed an increase in unreshelved journals over the token reinforcement period, though the increase was not to baseline levels. For the next 11 months, library staff maintained a modified token program. Follow-up data collected after that interval showed that number of unreshelved journals remained markedly lower than levels at baseline and the first instructions-only period, though they were slightly higher than at the token reinforcement period. Token reinforcement of the variety employed in this study constitutes an efficient, economical means of changing the behavior of library users who fail to reshelve books and journals.     

Conceptualizing Self-determination from a Behavioral Perspective: The Role of Choice,Self-control,and Self-management

The goal of education can be defined in many ways; but in searching the literature, we found that in most cases, people consider the goal of education to be developing a self-determined individual. Self-determination is an abstract term. Behavior analysts may find this term difficult to define. Therefore, it may be difficult to observe and measure whether “self-determined behaviors” have developed. Many other service providers use this term frequently; thus, behavior analysts working with these service providers must come to terms with this concept in order to better collaborate. We argue that self-determination can be operationally defined with the concepts of choice, self-control, and self-management. By using the measurable behaviors included in these concepts, we believe that services can be developed to teach self-determination skills. This paper explores these concepts and how they can contribute to an operational definition of self-determination, and ultimately, help behavior analysts work with other providers to effectively teach self-determination to individuals with developmental disabilities.

     

Inhibitory control and set shifting describe different pathways from behavioral inhibition to socially anxious behavior

Individuals with a behaviorally inhibited (BI) temperament are more likely to develop social anxiety. However, the mechanisms by which socially anxious behavior emerges from BI are unclear. Variation in different forms of top‐down control, specifically executive functions (EF), may play distinct roles and characterize differential pathways to social anxiety. Here 291 children were assessed for BI in toddlerhood (ages 2 and 3), parent‐reported inhibitory control and set shifting during middle childhood (age 7), and multidimensional assessment of socially anxious behavior completed during late childhood and early adolescence (ages 9 and 12). Structural equation modeling revealed that early variation in BI predicted the development of socially anxious behavior through either higher levels of parent‐reported inhibitory control or lower levels of parent‐reported set shifting. These data reinforce the notion that top‐down control does not uniformly influence relations between temperament and socially anxious behavior. These data suggest novel approaches to thinking about the role of EFs and social anxiety outcomes as children approach adolescence.     

The relationship of perinatal birth status to handedness: A prospective study

As part of a longitudinal study of the consequences of high risk birth, 66 infants born to right-handed parents were given two unimanual tasks at 24 months of age to assess their hand preference. The 66 infants had been assigned to one of four diagnostic categories at birth: Premature with no postnatal medical complications; premature and having experienced respiratory distress; term and having experienced birth asphyxia during labor and delivery; term with normal delivery and postnatal course. Results of the handedness tasks revealed an increased incidence of use of the left hand among the term infants who underwent birth asphyxia and among the healthy preterm infants. The data indicate that timing of birth stress may play an important role in the ontogeny of pathological left-handedness.     

Face-to-face interaction in term and preterm infants

Previous research has found that mothers of preterm infants work harder in a face-to-face situation with their infants than mothers of term infants. Data have also revealed that preterm infants are less responsive than term infants in a social interaction. To date, there have been few studies that have attempted to determine the range of facial expressive cues that preterms may be emitting or the possible physiological basis for this behavior. In an attempt to investigate these questions, preterm and term infants were observed in a face-to-face situation. Prior to the session, three minutes of resting EKG was recorded. The infant's facial behavior was coded with a discrete facial action coding system. Maternal behavior was also coded. Measures of heart rate as well as short and long term variability were computed. Results revealed no differences in facial lability or in facial expressiveness between term and preterm infant. In addition, there were no differences in maternal behavior to either term or preterm. There were, however, reliable contingent relationships between facial expression of the infant and maternal behavior. In addition, there was a significant association between short term variability (vagal tone) and infant facial behavior.