Reinforcer Variation in a Token Economy

We evaluated whether generalized conditioned reinforcers mitigate the effects of satiation with an individual with intellectual disabilities. Previous research indicates that generalized conditioned reinforcers are not sensitive to satiation effects. However, this effect has not been investigated on varying classes of backup reinforcers. First, we established a highly preferred (HP) edible as a reinforcer. Then, we provided presession access to the HP edible, and, in a multi‐element comparison, the participant could either earn tokens for only the HP edible, for edibles that were similar to the HP edible, for edibles that were dissimilar to the HP edible, or earn no tokens. A decreasing trend in responding for the HP edible was observed following presession access. Furthermore, the participant completed the task at a high rate when backup reinforcers were dissimilar to the HP edible. Results suggest that varying the classes of stimuli that are used as backup reinforcers may increase the effectiveness of generalized conditioned reinforcers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Intersection of Perceptions and Experiences of Bullying by Race and Ethnicity among Middle School Students in the United States

Little is known about how ethnic identity influences bullying. Using a racially diverse sample, we examine how within-race perceptions match experiences. We utilize bivariate probit regression to examine the correlation between actual and perceived victimization and bullying experiences. Results suggest no differences in victimization by ethnicity but perceived victimization differed across groups. Perceived and actual bullying differed across all groups. School climate acted as a protective factor against bullying and victimization, but school diversity increased the likelihood of bullying by whites and Latinos. These findings shed light on the importance of ethnic identity in understanding the etiology of bullying.     

Growing Up with an Anxious Sibling: Psychosocial Correlates and Predictors of Sibling Relationship Quality

Relationships between young people with anxiety and their non-affected siblings are important for both individuals in the dyad, and for family dynamics throughout the lifespan; however, these relationships are not well understood. This study examined the experience of growing up with an anxious sibling from the sibling without anxiety’s point of view. We measured psychosocial factors associated with sibling relationship quality in 64 young adults with an anxious sibling. Overall, participants with anxious siblings were resilient, reporting comparable sibling relationship quality, anxiety symptoms, and psychological functioning relative to peers without anxious siblings. The contributions of caregiver burden and attributions about the causes of the sibling’s anxiety-related behavior accounted for significant variance in both sibling relationship warmth/closeness and conflict, with responsibility attributions emerging as an individual predictor of conflict. Clinical and research implications for understanding sibling relationships in the context of anxiety, and for the role of attributions in family relationships are considered.     

Learning to Heal from Those Who Know! The “Lived” Experience of a Peer Support Program for Adult Survivors of Childhood Trauma

This study explored the dual phenomenon of experiencing a peer support residential trauma program from the perspective of (a) a client, and (b) a facilitator. It sought both positive and negative subjective interpretations. Participants were former clients and current facilitators of the program. Data were collected through a focus group, and analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. One superordinate theme, altruistic growth, overarched 2 subordinate themes. The first, modeling through respect, included subthemes of respect and hope and empowerment. The second subordinate theme, reciprocal model of care, encapsulated personal challenges such as facing the mirror, old demons, and burnout and breaking points. Conversely, participants mused on these challenges as opportunities for further healing through opportunities for self-nurturing and gratitude. Implications for treatment of adult survivors of childhood trauma are discussed. For facilitators, the program was seen as offering further personal reflection and a giving forward that was interpreted as altruistic growth.     

Trait Socio-Cognitive Mindfulness is Related to Affective and Cognitive Empathy

Research regarding the relationship between empathy and mindfulness is sparse. Within the social scientific literature, there are two major branches of mindfulness research: meditative mindfulness (Kabat-Zinn in Gen Hosp Psychiatry 4(1):33–47, 1982) and non-meditative, socio-cognitive mindfulness (Langer and Moldoveanu in J Soc Issues 56(1):1–9, 2000). Meditative mindfulness is the awareness that arises through paying attention non-judgmentally to the present moment whereas socio-cognitive mindfulness is the process of drawing novel distinctions leading to greater attention to the present moment and sensitivity to context. We hypothesized that the two types of mindfulness would correlate with each other and with empathy broadly defined but that there would be divergence in these relationships given their conceptual distinctions. Four hundred and eighty-four participants from Mechanical Turk completed tasks of socio-cognitive mindfulness, meditative mindfulness, affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and social desirability. Socio-cognitive mindfulness correlated with both affective and cognitive empathy as well as with meditative mindfulness. Meditative mindfulness correlated with only affective empathy but not with cognitive empathy. These findings suggested that, in contrast to meditative mindfulness, socio-cognitive mindfulness involves cognitive processes (e.g., perspective-taking, flexibility) potentially amenable to experimental manipulation aimed at increasing empathy more generally.     

When a Non-resident Worker is a Non-resident Parent: Investigating the Family Impact of Fly-In,Fly-Out Work Practices in Australia

Non-resident work practices, which involve prolonged separations from family, long-distance commuting between home and remote work sites and long work hours across compressed rosters, are now commonplace in Australia. This study examined the impact of these work arrangements, often termed Fly-In/Fly-Out (FIFO), on children and families, and to identify family-related and employment-related factors that influence child and family outcomes. Anonymous online surveys containing measures of family and couple relationship quality, child behavioral and emotional adjustment, parenting and personal adjustment were completed by 232 partners of FIFO workers, 46 FIFO workers, and a comparison group of community parents (N = 294 mothers, N = 36 fathers). There were no differences between FIFO partners and community parents on family or couple relationship quality, parenting competence and child behavioral or emotional difficulties. FIFO partners reported higher levels of personal emotional problems and greater usage of harsh discipline practices than community mothers, while FIFO workers reported greater work to family conflict and alcohol use than community fathers. Regression analyses on the FIFO partners sample indicated that child and family functioning were best predicted by family factors, including harsh parenting and parental emotional adjustment. Implications of the findings for the design and provision of family-based support for FIFO families are discussed.     

Neuropsychological indicators of preclinical Alzheimer’s disease among depressed older adults

Older adults with major depressive disorder (MDD) may also have preclinical Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Differential diagnosis is quite challenging due to the overlapping symptoms of MDD and AD. In the current study, we predicted that impaired long-term memory (an area most affected in early AD), but not executive function (an area affected in MDD and AD), would distinguish older depressed patients who developed AD from those who did not. Patients (N = 120) assessed as having MDD but not dementia at baseline were administered tests of cognitive function and followed longitudinally for subsequent diagnosis of AD. Using structural equation modeling we found a latent construct of long-term memory to be associated with AD to a greater extent than executive functioning. Additional analyses to enhance clinical utility of findings indicated that individual tests of episodic memory were most predictive of AD status. Tests of long-term memory can be utilized by the clinician when assessing for preclinical AD among depressed elderly.     

Does effort influence inequity aversion in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)?

The human sense of fairness entails sensitivity not just to equality, the equal division of resources, but also to merit, the relationship between an individual’s share of resources and how hard they worked for their share. Recent evidence suggests that our sensitivity to equality has deep phylogenetic roots: several nonhuman animal species show an aversion to unequal reward distributions. However, the extent to which nonhuman animals share sensitivity to merit remains poorly understood, largely because previous studies have failed to properly manipulate work effort in inequity aversion tasks. Here, we tested whether cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) would exhibit a differential response to inequity when acquiring rewards was either (1) effortful or (2) effortless. Subjects engaged in a pulling task in which they had an opportunity to deliver a disadvantageously unequal distribution of food to themselves and a partner (one piece for self, four pieces for partner). We made delivery effortful by adding a weight to the pulling handle. Critically, effort was calibrated to each individual. Results show that individuals varied markedly in their response to effort, highlighting the importance of manipulating work effort at the individual level. Overall, subjects showed little aversion to inequity. However, subjects were slightly less likely to accept inequity when doing so was effortful, although this effect was pronounced in only one individual. Our findings suggest a new method for capturing individual variation in effort and for studying the roots of the concept of merit in nonhuman animals.     

On predicting others’ words: Electrophysiological evidence of prediction in speech production

The present study investigated whether lexical processes that occur when we name objects can also be observed when an interaction partner is naming objects. We compared the behavioral and electrophysiological responses of participants performing a conditional go/no-go picture naming task in two different conditions: individually and jointly with a confederate participant. To obtain an index of lexical processing, we manipulated lexical frequency, so that half of the pictures had corresponding names of high-frequency and the remaining half had names of low-frequency. Color cues determined whether participants should respond, whether their task-partner should respond, or whether nobody should respond. Behavioral and ERP results showed that participants engaged in lexical processing when it was their turn to respond. Crucially, ERP results on no-go trials revealed that participants also engaged in lexical processing when it was their partner’s turn to act. In addition, ERP results showed increased response inhibition selectively when it was the partner’s turn to act. These findings provide evidence for the claim that listeners generate predictions about speakers’ utterances by relying on their own action production system.