How to stay perfect: the role of memory and behavioural traits in an experienced problem and a similar problem

When animals encounter a task they have solved previously, or the same problem appears in a different apparatus, how does memory, alongside behavioural traits such as persistence, selectivity and flexibility, enhance problem-solving efficiency? We examined this question by first presenting grey squirrels with a puzzle 22 months after their last experience of it (the recall task). Squirrels were then given the same problem presented in a physically different apparatus (the generalisation task) to test whether they would apply the previously learnt tactics to solve the same problem but in a different apparatus. The mean latency to success in the first trial of the recall task was significantly different from the first exposure but not different from the last exposure of the original task, showing retention of the task. A neophobia test in the generalisation task suggested squirrels perceived the different apparatus as a different problem, but they quickly came to apply the same effective tactics as before to solve the task. Greater selectivity (the proportion of effective behaviours) and flexibility (the rate of switching between tactics) both enhanced efficiency in the recall task, but only selectivity enhanced efficiency in the generalisation task. These results support the interaction between memory and behavioural traits in problem-solving, in particular memory of task-specific tactics that could enhance efficiency. Squirrels remembered and emitted task-effective tactics more than ineffective tactics. As a result, they consistently changed from ineffective to effective behaviours after failed attempts at problem-solving.     

An examination of the interactions between mothers and children with anxiety disorders

This study examined the association between parenting styles and mother and child anxiety. Maternal overinvolvement and negativity/criticism were evaluated during a speech preparation task (N = 135 dyads) and a Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS) from mothers (N = 155). During the speech task interaction, mothers of anxious children (aged 4–16 years), regardless of their own anxiety, were observed to be more overinvolved than mothers of nonanxious children. Similarly, the FMSS showed that mothers of anxious children (aged 4–17 years) were more overprotective, self-sacrificing, or nonobjective than mothers of nonanxious children, irrespective of maternal anxiety status. No differences in maternal negativity were found on the speech task between any of the groups. However, the FMSS showed that mothers of anxious children were more critical than mothers of nonanxious children, regardless of maternal anxiety status. These results support the relationship between overinvolved, critical parenting and child anxiety, but suggest that maternal anxiety is not associated with increased overinvolvement or criticism. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Visual guidance for hand advance but not hand withdrawal in a reach-to-eat task in adult humans: reaching is a composite movement

Many animal species use reaching for food to place in the mouth (reach-to-eat) with a hand, and it may be a primitive movement. Although researchers (I. Q. Whishaw, 2005; A. N. Iwaniuk & I. Q. Whishaw, 2000; M. Gentiluci, I. Toni, S. Chieffi, & G. Pavesi, 1994) have described visual guidance of reaching in both normal and brain-injured human and nonhuman primates, researchers have not described the contribution of vision during advance of the limb to grasp food and during withdrawal of the limb with food to the mouth. To evaluate visual contributions, the authors monitored eye movements in young adults as they reached for food with and without vision. Participants visually engaged the target prior to the 1st hand movement and disengaged it as the food was grasped. Visual occlusion slowed limb advance and altered digit shaping but did not affect withdrawal. The dependence on visual control of advance but not withdrawal suggests that the reach-to-eat movement is a composite of 2 basic movements under visual and tactile/proprioceptive guidance, respectively.     

When Self-Worth Depends on Social Media Feedback: Associations with Psychological Well-Being

Sex Roles - Social media have become primary forms of social communication and means to maintain social connections among young adult women. Although social connectedness generally has a positive...     

Team Reasoning and the Rational Choice of Payoff-Dominant Outcomes in Games

Topoi - Standard game theory cannot explain the selection of payoff-dominant outcomes that are best for all players in common-interest games. Theories of team reasoning can explain why such...     

Reinforcer Variation in a Token Economy

We evaluated whether generalized conditioned reinforcers mitigate the effects of satiation with an individual with intellectual disabilities. Previous research indicates that generalized conditioned reinforcers are not sensitive to satiation effects. However, this effect has not been investigated on varying classes of backup reinforcers. First, we established a highly preferred (HP) edible as a reinforcer. Then, we provided presession access to the HP edible, and, in a multi‐element comparison, the participant could either earn tokens for only the HP edible, for edibles that were similar to the HP edible, for edibles that were dissimilar to the HP edible, or earn no tokens. A decreasing trend in responding for the HP edible was observed following presession access. Furthermore, the participant completed the task at a high rate when backup reinforcers were dissimilar to the HP edible. Results suggest that varying the classes of stimuli that are used as backup reinforcers may increase the effectiveness of generalized conditioned reinforcers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Resilience Factors in Paediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Health Care Provider,Parent and Youth Perspectives

Journal of Child and Family Studies - Exploring factors related to resilience in youth with inflammatory bowel disease may elucidate modifiable risk factors and inform interventions. Yet, how...     

The role of relationships and sense of belonging among first-generation,low-income youth on future college entrance

Social Psychology of Education - This study uses a subsample from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to examine protective factors for lower-income, first-generation...