Gender Comparisons in the Perception of Self-Competence Among Four-Year-Old Children

The purpose of this study was to determine the presence of gender differences in the perception of self-competence among 4-year-old children. Sixty-one 4-year-olds (27 girls and 34 boys) from predominantly European American backgrounds participated in the study. The children's self-competence was measured using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (Preschool version; S. Harter & R. Pike, 1984), which has 4 separate subscales: (a) cognitive competence, (b) physical competence, (c) peer acceptance, and (d) maternal acceptance. A within-subject 2-way analysis of variance with repeated measures of 4 (subscales of perception of self-competence) × 2 (gender) was performed to determine if gender differences existed in the children's perception of self-competence. Analyses of the data showed no significant gender differences in the scores on the 4 subscales for the perception of self-competence among the children. These results could be interpreted as being due to a less gender-stereotyped society and androgynous environment for these preschoolers.     

Toddlers' Social Behaviors in Dyads and Groups

Although toddlers are clearly capable of interacting with peers, the amount and type of interactions among toddlers is controversial. Objectives of the present study were (a) to determine the effect of dyad versus group settings on the amount and type of social behaviors with peers, (b) to determine preference for interacting with peers versus adults, and (c) to determine differences in the types of behaviors directed to peers and adults. Sixteen children (with a mean age of 27 months) were observed in both a group setting and a dyad setting; their mothers were present in both settings. The children were from three different toddler classes, each meeting once a week. Specific social behaviors were coded, as well as the person to whom the behavior was directed (i.e., peer or adult). Setting affected toddlers' behaviors with adults but not behaviors with peers. Regardless of setting, toddlers preferred interacting with adults. The types of behaviors directed to peers and adults differed. Direct interactions with peers were rare, but interest and awareness of peers was shown by moderately high levels of proximity and parallel play. The use of different criteria to define social play appears to account for differences across studies in the amount of peer interaction.     

Care and Justice Moral Orientation: A Scale for Its Assessment

A quantitative measure of adult moral orientation, based on the theoretical frameworks of Kohlberg and Gilligan, was developed to measure preference for "justice" or "care"-oriented moral thinking. The Moral Orientation Scale Using Childhood Dilemmas (MOS), a short, objective measure, presents adults with a series of dilemmas frequently faced by children, each followed by two care-oriented and two justice-oriented responses to the dilemma. The procedures for developing and scoring the measure are discussed, and validity and reliability data are presented. Used with both male and female social work and law students, as expected, the MOS shows males to be more justice-oriented in their moral reasoning than females who are shown to be more care-oriented. Moreover, in further agreement with Gilligan's theory that gender and experience, taken together, are related to moral reasoning style, male lawyers and female social workers are shown to have the strongest preferences.     

Occupational Therapy Student Experiences and Transformations During Fieldwork in Mental Health Settings

The purpose of this study is to better understand the transformative experiences of occupational therapy students during fieldwork. In occupational therapy education, fieldwork provides students with an in-depth experience in the field. Thirty-one students submitted narratives following completion of Level II fieldwork in a mental health setting. Concepts from transformative learning theory guided the analysis. The themes that emerged were: (1) understanding clients with mental illness; (2) understanding occupation and occupational therapy; (3) feeling like a professional; and (4) changing as a person. The results highlight the importance of understanding the transformative process and fieldwork in mental health settings.     

A social learning analysis of couples during the second postnatal month

Abstract

This study examined the marital satisfaction and behaviors of 32 couples at one and two months following the births of their first children. Self-report measures of daily satisfaction and daily spouse-observed behaviors were analyzed for patterns approximating those associated with distressed marital interaction identified through earlier social learning studies. Over the time period from 30 to 60 days postnatally, increases were found in spouses' tendency to reciprocate one another's behavior. Except for helpful behaviors involved with care of the infant, spouses at two months postnatally were more likely to reciprocate both irritating and rewarding behaviors than at one month. Nonsignificant decreases in marital satisfaction were accompanied by a mixed pattern of change for spouse-observed behaviors. Predicted changes over time in the proportions of pleasing and displeasing behaviors were evident in only half the comparisons. Increases over time were found for the predictability from spouse-reported daily behaviors to marital satisfaction, but an expected increase in the importance of negative behaviors to the multiple correlation with satisfaction was not obtained. Cross-lagged panel correlation analysis indicated that, for wives, increases in satisfaction at 30 days preceded a parallel increase in their reports of rewarding behaviors and a decrease in aversive behaviors from their husbands at 60 days postnatally. Implications of these findings for identification of couple risk factors for later clinical problems and for early family intervention are discussed.     

The relation of young children's vicarious emotional responding to social competence,regulation, and emotionality

Abstract

The relation of preschool and kindergarten children's vicarious emotional responding to their social competence, regulation (attentional and coping styles), and emotionality (negative emotional intensity and dispositional negative affect) was examined. Vicarious responding was assessed by means of facial reactions to a film about a peer in a social conflict and children's reported negative affect to viewing peers' real-life negative emotion. Mothers and teachers reported on children's regulation and emotionality, social competence was assessed with sociometric nominations, teachers' reports, and observations of children's real-life anger reactions. Facial concerned attention during the film was associated with various measures of social competence, regulation, and low or moderate negative emotionality. Although negative vicarious emotional responding in real contexts was infrequently related to measures of interest, girls who reported intense negative vicarious emotional responses were relatively unregulated and low in social competence. Finally, with age, regulation of vicarious emotional responding was increasingly related to children's sociometric status and to girls' coping at school. Thus, as they get older, children's abilities to regulate emotions may take on increasing importance in others' evaluations of their social competencies.