A rat chamber and electrode procedure for avoidance conditioning

A method was developed for studying the reactions of rats to aversive shock. The distinctive features were the design of the chamber and a method of restraint that allowed the use of surface electrodes to deliver the shock. Advantages of this method were: (1) accurate specification of the shock actually received by the rat; (2) elimination of all unauthorized escape or avoidance reactions; (3) elimination of the shock scramblers and floor grids required with foot-shock; and, (4) rapid acquisition of performance under various avoidance procedures and various frequencies of shock delivery.     

Effect of shock duration on shock-induced fighting

Shock-induced fighting between paired rats was a direct function of the duration of the shock stimulus. Continued presentations of the shock partially reversed this direct relationship.     

Fixed-ratio punishment

Responses were maintained by a variable-interval schedule of food reinforcement. At the same time, punishment was delivered following every nth response (fixed-ratio punishment). The introduction of fixed-ratio punishment produced an initial phase during which the emission of responses was positively accelerated between punishments. Eventually, the degree of positive acceleration was reduced and a uniform but reduced rate of responding emerged. Large changes in the over-all level of responding were produced by the intensity of punishment, the value of the punishment ratio, and the level of food deprivation. The uniformity of response rate between punishments was invariant in spite of these changes in over-all rate and contrary to some plausible a priori theoretical considerations. Fixed-ratio punishment also produced phenomena previously observed under continuous punishment: warm-up effect and a compensatory increase. This type of intermittent punishment produced less rapid and less complete suppression than did continuous punishment.     

Comparison of reciprocity and discussion-type counseling for marital problems

Abstract

Reciprocity counseling had previously been found to increase reported marital happiness in a study using a within-subject design. Fifty-five couples served in the present study using a between-subjects design, additional response measures, and additional positive communication training. The reciprocity counseling provided behavioral contracting, communication training and instruction in mutual reinforcement, whereas the control procedure encouraged discussion of the problems. The reciprocity counseling produced significantly more improvement than the discussion-type counseling for the three marital adjustment measures after four sessions. The improvement was maintained during the 24 months of follow-up.     

Increased communications of chronic mental patients by reinforcement and by response priming

An attempt was made to increase the frequency with which chronic schizophrenic patients suggested feasible improvements in their treatment. A response priming procedure was devised that was comparable to a previously developed reinforcer exposure procedure. The patients were required to attend a structured meeting during which they were prompted to make suggestions. This priming procedure was compared with the more usual procedure of "welcoming" attendance and suggestions. It was found that more suggestions were made when attendance was required, rather than optional. This increase occurred during a group as well as a private meeting. An attempt was then made to analyze the probable reinforcer for the suggestions by experimentally varying the percentage of suggestions followed. Different staff members served as the discriminative stimuli within a multiple schedule. It was found that the number of suggestions was a direct function of the percentage followed. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of the priming procedure as an adjunct to reinforcement procedures for increasing desired behaviors of mental patients. Few suggestions were made when reinforcement or priming were used alone.     

Reinforcer sampling: a technique for increasing the behavior of mental patients

Mental hospital patients in a motivating ward environment were using the available reinforcers less than was desired. A procedure for increasing the frequency of using reinforcers was developed: all patients were required to engage in the reinforcing event each time it was available but the duration of this required participation was limited so that the event was merely sampled. The effect of this required sampling was experimentally evaluated for three different reinforcers: going for a walk, watching a movie, and attending a music session. More patients used each of the three reinforcers and to a greater extent when the sampling procedure was used. Participation was increased even for those patients who had already been using the reinforcers, demonstrating that the technique did more than provide simple familiarization. Some familiarization was involved since the participation was slightly increased even after the sampling procedure was discontinued. The technique appears to be especially applicable when reinforcers are being delivered infrequently.     

Effects of shock intensity and duration on the frequency of biting attack by squirrel monkeys

Squirrel monkeys were periodically exposed to brief tail-shocks in the presence of a rubber tube connected to a pneumatic switch. Biting attack upon this tube was found to be a decreasing function of time since shock delivery and a direct function of shock intensity and duration. These results parallel findings in investigations employing more “naturalistic” social situations, indicating that attack against the inanimate and animate environment is a direct function of the intensity of an aversive stimulus. The results also demonstrate that frequency of biting attack as a datum is sensitive to several experimental manipulations.     

Developing proper mealtime behaviors of the institutionalized retarded

The institutionalized mentally retarded display a variety of unsanitary, disruptive, and improper table manners. A program was developed that included (1) acquisition-training of a high standard of proper table manners and (2) maintenance procedures to provide continued motivation to maintain proper mealtime behaviors and decrease improper skills. Twelve retardates received acquisition training, individually, by a combination of verbal instruction, imitation, and manual guidance. The students then ate in their group dining arrangement where the staff supervisor provided continuing approval for proper manners and verbal correction and timeout for improper manners. The results were: (1) the trained retardates showed significant improvement, whereas those untrained did not; (2) the trained retardates ate as well in the institution as non-retarded customers did in a public restaurant; (3) proper eating was maintained in the group dining setting; (4) timeout was rarely needed; (5) the program was easily administered by regular staff in a regular dining setting. The rapidity, feasibility, and effectiveness of the program suggests the program as a solution to improper mealtime behaviors by the institutionalized mentally retarded.     

Training and maintaining a retarded child's proper eating

The present study was designed to explore whether motivational procedures are needed to maintain a retardate's continued use of previously trained eating skills. A profoundly retarded child who ate food with her hands was trained by a manual guidance procedure to eat properly with a spoon, but the child still did not use the spoon after having learned to do so. When a motivational-maintenance procedure was applied, the child did begin to eat properly. When maintenance was discontinued, the child returned to eating with her hands. Proper eating returned when maintenance was applied again; when discontinued, the child returned to eating with her hands. These results demonstrate that continued motivational procedures are needed after training to maintain the retardate's continued use of proper eating skills.