Effects of reinforcement history on responding under progressive-ratio schedules of reinforcement.

The effects of experimental history on responding under a progressive-ratio schedule of reinforcement were examined. Sixteen pigeons were divided into four equal groups. Groups 1 to 3 were trained to peck a key for food under a fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, or differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule of reinforcement. After training, these pigeons were shifted to a progressive-ratio schedule, later were shifted back to their original schedule (with decreased rates of reinforcement), and finally were returned to the progressive-ratio schedule. Pigeons in Group 4 (control) were maintained on the progressive-ratio schedule for the entire experiment. To test for potential "latent history" effects, pigeons responding under the progressive-ratio schedule were injected with d-amphetamine and given behavioral-momentum tests of prefeeding and extinction. Experimental histories affected responding in the immediate transition to the progressive-ratio schedule; response rates of pigeons with variable-ratio and fixed-ratio histories were higher than rates of pigeons with differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate and progressive-ratio-only histories. Pigeons with differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate histories, and to a lesser degree pigeons with variable-ratio and fixed-ratio histories, also had shorter postreinforcement pauses than pigeons with only a progressive-ratio history. No consistent long-term effects of prior contingencies on responding under the progressive-ratio schedule were evident. d-Amphetamine and resistance-to-change tests failed to reveal consistent latent history effects. The data suggest that history effects are sometimes transitory and not susceptible to latent influences.     

Age differences in skill acquisition and transfer in an implicit learning paradigm

Age differences in learning a complex cognitive skill are examined. The type of knowledge gained and levels of performance and transfer achieved, under different practice conditions, were compared in younger and older groups of trainees. The development of verbalizable knowledge about the task but not task performance itself varied as a function of age and practice condition. All trainees achieved transfer to novel versions of the task but older subjects appeared restricted to tasks drawn from the same semantic domain. The implications of these findings for developing training programmes for older workers are discussed.     

The relationship between dispositional optimism, dispositional pessimism, repressive coping and trait anxiety

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between dispositional optimism, dispositional pessimism, repressive coping and trait anxiety. The Marlowe-Crowne scale (MC) and the Bendig version of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) were used to select repressor and control groups (N=143, aged between 18 and 47 years), who subsequently completed a measure of dispositional optimism, the Life Orientation Test (LOT), which consists of two sets of items: optimism and pessimism. Repressors (high MC, low MAS) reported significantly lower pessimism than all other participants. When the pessimism scale was divided into high and low categories, there were significantly more repressors in the low pessimism group than the other low trait anxiety group, low anxious (low MC, low MAS). However, for the optimism scale the opposite pattern of results was found, with significantly more low anxious in the high optimism group than repressors. These results support the assertion that the pessimism and optimism scales of the LOT are not the same construct and should be measured separately.     

Multicultural Competence and Counselor Training: A National Survey

The extent to which practicing professional counselors perceive themselves as multiculturally competent and the basis for their training experiences in multicultural counseling have not been determined. This article reports the results of a survey on practicing professional counselors' perceptions of their multicultural competence and the nature of their pre- and in-service professional preparation in this area. There was no significant difference in self-perceived multicultural competence between graduates of Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) accredited and nonaccredited programs. However, ethnicity was related to higher levels of perceived multicultural competence.     

Children's Participation in Genetic Prevalence Research: Influences on Enrollment and Reports of Parent Satisfaction1

The present studies were designed to evaluate methodological influences on the efficiency of genetic-screening studies, specifically when enrolling preschoolers in a prevalence study of the fragile X full mutation. The studies include replication of earlier findings with school-age children, which showed that (a) a higher enrollment rate occurred when the study was introduced to a parent by a physician (73.7%) versus by a research assistant (58.7%), and (b) parents initially undecided about participating were more likely to eventually enroll if they had completed enrollment forms at the time of recruitment, In-person recruitment led to higher enrollment rates (60%) than did recruitment by mail (36.8%). Feedback from parents indicated the importance of emphasizing the optional nature of participation in screening studies.     

Grandparents and Stepgrandparents: Challenges in Counseling the Extended-Blended Family

Remarriage of parents may bring new grandparents and stepgrandparents into the lives of children, creating new family structures and needs for adjustment. The extended-blended family may benefit from specific counseling interventions.     

Resistance to satiation of consummatory and instrumental performance

In three experiments rats received training in a straight alley under high hunger and then were tested satiated. Both eating and running continued to occur under satiation, but the two responses were not completely correlated, and continued running did not depend upon continued eating. Further, groups differed in their eating behavior, although all experienced the same satiation procedure, suggesting that eating under satiation is not just a reflection of incomplete satiation. Resistance to satiation of the running response was greater following partial reward than following consistant reward and tended to be greater following small reward training than large reward training, regardless of schedule of reward. Eating during satiation was greater following partial than following consistent reward and was greater if the same reward magnitude was given in satiation as in acquisition than if a different reward magnitude was given. It was suggested that resistance to satiation is an associative phenomenon. Eating and running occur during satiation because the stimuli present during satiation continue to elicit them. The differences between results using rewarded satiation and results using high drive extinction as measures of persistence were attributed to satiation being nonfrustrating.     

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VERBAL INSTRUCTION ON TEACHING BEHAVIOR-MODIFICATION SKILLS TO NONPROFESSIONALS1

The effectiveness of a mastery criterion, lecture-based training program for teaching behavior modification to sheltered workshop personnel was evaluated. Staff performance was assessed in terms of: (1) verbal proficiency, as determined from a pre- and posttraining written exam, and (2) application proficiency, as measured by the frequency and appropriateness of staff responses to client behaviors. A direct count was made of the number of positive, negative, and neutral statements following client appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, and the number and type of client behaviors ignored. Thus, it was possible to determine the extent of generalization from classroom to applied settings, as well as the appropriateness of lectures for training specific performance skills. Lecture units introduced stimulus control procedures, shaping-chaining, and contingency management. Characteristic features of the training program were frequent testing, study objectives, immediate remediation, and contingent reinforcement. Verbal instruction was shown to be effective in improving subjects' verbal skills concerning behavior-modification principles, while only partially effective in improving application skills. There was an increase in the total number of staff-client interactions observed for all subjects, but only two of the response classes emphasized in the training program (reinforcing desirable client behavior and ignoring undesirable behavior) showed considerable improvement over pretraining levels. Despite this partial improvement, verbal instruction alone was shown to be insufficient for teaching the full range of behavior-modification skills required to function effectively in applied settings.