Research in developmental psychology on gender and relationships: Reflections on the past and looking into the future

Recent historical trends and current directions in the study of children's gender and relationships are reviewed using Maccoby and Jacklin's (1974) The Psychology of Sex Differences as a reference point. Since the publication of Maccoby and Jacklin's review, researchers have questioned the extent and the magnitude of gender differences in social behaviour as well as the degree to which parents play a primary role in gender development. More attention is now paid to the impact of gender‐segregated peer groups and other social relationships (e.g., friendships, romantic relationships) as well as cognitive‐motivational and biological processes. Furthermore, the role of the larger social‐structural context is addressed in studies of sexism and gender bias during childhood and adolescence. Recommendations for future research are offered.     

An investigation of Kaufman''s method for determining scatter on the WISC-R

Kaufman's procedures (Journal of Learning Disabilities, 9, 160–168, 1976) for determining intersubtest scatter on the WISC-R were investigated by means of J. M. Sattler's revised tables (Assessment of children's intelligence and special abilities (2nd ed.), Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1982) for determining significant subtest fluctuations. Data from the standardization sample were analyzed and new normative tables for interpreting subtest scatter were produced. The results indicated that Sattler's revised tables yielded more conservative estimates of subtest scatter than those originally reported by Kaufman. McNemar chi squares indicated that, in almost every instance, a significant number of subtests switched from being significantly discrepant by Kaufman's ±3 criterion to nonsignificant by Sattler's revised values. It was concluded that Kaufman's ±3 rule of thumb is no longer defensible on any reasonable statistical grounds and that the clinician should utilize Sattler's revised table of critical values when determining whether a subtest deviates significantly from the mean Verbal or Performance scaled score. The normative tables generated in the present study should be consulted when assessing whether the overall amount of scatter observed in a particular child's profile represents “unusual” scatter.     

Correlates and predictors of hyperactivity and aggression: A longitudinal study of parent-referred problem preschoolers

Forty-six parent-referred problem 3-year-olds and 22 comparison children were assessed with parent report and observational measures; 54 were followed up at age 4, and 53 were followed again at age 6. Lower social class and greater family stress were associated with higher symptom ratings at initial referral and age 6 follow-up. Negative and directive maternal behavior and negative and noncompliant child behavior observed in the lab at age 3 were associated with higher maternal ratings of child aggression and hyperactivity; these observed behaviors continued to be highly predictive of maternal ratings of persistent problems at ages 4 and 6. A laboratory index of inattention and overactivity at intake also predicted hyperactivity ratings at age 6. These findings suggest that externalizing problems identified in early childhood are likely to persist when they are associated with more family disruption and a negative mother-child relationship.This research was supported by Grant No. MH 32735 from the National Institute of Mental Health to Dr. Campbell. We are indebted to the children and families who have participated so enthusiastically in this study over the past 5 years. The help of Deborah Baldwin, Patricia Cluss, and Diane Gluck is gratefully acknowledged. Many additional people participated in various phases of this study as independent observers and data coders. Their contributions are also recognized.     

Memory accessibility and probability judgments: an experimental evaluation of the availability heuristic.

Consistent with Tversky and Kahneman's (1973, 1974) availability heuristic hypothesis, the current study found a negative correlation between recall latency for past events and the perceived future probability of similar events. Furthermore, when the relative accessibility of memories of positive and negative events was experimentally manipulated using the Velten mood-induction procedure, the perceived future probabilities of similar events also changed in a manner consistent with the availability heuristic account. Reductions in recall latencies resulting from the mood manipulations were, as predicted, related to increases in perceived probability, and vice versa. Partial correlations indicated that this association between the observed patterns of changes in recall latencies and probability judgments could not be accounted for by the existence of independent associations between each of these effects and the magnitude of mood change.     

Hume's refutation of the cosmological argument

Conclusion Let me summarize the results of this paper in a way that seems fitting to Hume's discussion of the cosmological argument. There are some philosophers who adopt the most stringent empiricist principles. Such men and women would reject any notion of necessity that is not analytic, and for this reason they would never admit a proof of the necessary existence of anything. Other philosophers, though empiricists, are not so dogmatic. They question the need for, not the coherence of, necessary existence. They believe that the material universe is nothing over and above the sum of its material parts and, thus, see no reason to conclude that a necessary being exists based on PSR. Still others are driven by a rationalist persuasion. They would gladly recognize the existence of almost anything provided it be proven by reason and argument. When they confront the cosmological argument they do indeed find it compelling but still see no reason to conclude that God, or any transcendent being, necessarily exists. The entity established need be nothing more than the universe itself. Therefore, as Hume has demonstrated, no philosopher need accept the conclusion of the cosmological argument.