CROSS-CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN RELATIONSHIP RULES

A British study of the informal rules of 22 social relationships was replicated among Japanese, Hong Kong and Italian samples. Subjects were asked to rate the importance of 33 common and varying numbers of relationship-specific rules to each of these relationships on a 9-point bipolar scale. Multivariate analyses showed each culture has a structure of highly endorsed rules, although a number of cross-cultural differences emerged in the nature of these rules, particularly those relating to intimacy. Certain cross-cultural predictions were confirmed.     

Stroop-like interference in chess players' imagery: An unexplored possibility to be revealed by the adapted moving-spot task

Summary A group of highly skilled chess players and two control groups of subjects (nonskilled players and nonplayers) participated in a moving-spot task (cf. Attneave & Curlee, 1983). They had to move either a spot or one of several chess pieces within an imaginary grid according to instructions given by the experimenter (the imaginary motion of the imaginary object consisted of a quasirandom sequence of steps in the direction — up, right, left, or down). The general findings were as follows: (1) chess players' error rates were lower than those in the nonplayer group; (2) in a moving-spot condition there were no significant differences in the efficiency of skilled vs. nonskilled player groups; (3) in a moving chess-piece condition, ranges of spatial errors differed for chess-player and nonplayer groups, depending on the symbolic meaning of the chess pieces in the former group; (4) in a moving chess-piece condition we also found tendencies for Stroop-like interference in the group of skilled players (e. g., bishop moving illegally up, right, etc.); (5) all groups benefitted from the use of a checkerboard instead of an 8 × 8 grid as the imaginary spatial framework within which to move a piece; (6) thepost hoc analysis showed that the two small selected subgroups of subjects comprising those who used either pure visual strategy or pure chess-annotation strategy were susceptible to some Stroop-like interference and that the set of pieces with the highest incongruity of moves (bishop, knight) yielded higher error rates than the set of pieces that had congruity of moves (king, rook). Taken together, these results seem to indicate that visuospatial tasks like Attneave and Curlee's (1983) moving-spot task are performed neither on the basis of a static picture-in-the-head type of visual image, for which it is just the same whether one or another type of piece is imaginarily moved, nor on the basis of purely symbolic or propositional operations that bear no relation to the visual-configurational and spatial-localizational representations. Imagery seems to constitute a dynamicprocess of interplay between visuospatial and verbal-propositional codes.     

Self-reported assertion and aggression among violent offenders with high or low levels of overcontrolled hostility

Self-report measures of personality, assertion, aggression and difficulty with social situations were completed by 66 male prisoners convicted for violent offences. Inmates were divided into overcontrolled and less-controlled groups on the basis of MMPI OH scores. No significant differences emerged on total ASES Assertion scale scores or on the four social-situation difficulty items dealing with assertiveness. However, overcontrolled men scored significantly lower on the Negative Assertion subscale and on the Aggression scale, as well as on two social-situation difficulty items dealing with the control of aggression. Less-controlled males showed a significant positive correlation between Aggression scale scores and negative assertion which was not obtained for the overcontrolled group. Results were discussed in terms of the different treatment needs of the two groups when using assertion or social-skills training with offender populations.     

Assessing different aspects of pretend play within a play setting: Towards a standardized assessment of pretend play in young children

The present study suggests a method with which to assess the interrelations between different types of pretend play. In contrast to standard methods in this area, the various types of pretend play were measured within an interactive play scenario. The pretend play tasks were included in a semi‐structured play sequence and presented to young children between 24 and 30 months of age (N=30). Self‐ and doll‐directed pretence, object substitution, pretence with realistic objects, and self‐initiated pretend play, as well as the understanding that an object had been given two identities was tested. The capacity for dual representation was assessed by asking for the real and pretend identity of an object. Age differences were found in the overall score for elicited pretence but not for all items separately. Individual items also differed in difficulty and thus are of potential use for assessing intraindividual differences in pretend play. Findings are discussed in the context of current theories and methods concerning the development and assessment of pretend play.     

RECONCEPTUALIZING ISSUES THAT AFFECT WOMEN'S SEXUAL DECISION-MAKING AND SEXUAL FUNCTIONING

This paper addresses five existing societal myths and their underlying faulty assumptions about women's sexuality. The following myths are examined: (a) women possess adequate sexual knowledge to understand their sexual needs, (b) they know how to communicate about sex, (c) they engage in sex because they want to do so, (d) if they are sexually active, they enjoy sex, and (e) they use their knowledge of sex to protect themselves from sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy. These myths need to be considered when conducting research and developing interventions designed to decrease women's sexual risk-taking. Research that assesses women's levels of factual sexual knowledge, comfort and skills discussing sexual information, and literacy is needed. The importance of examining ethnic, cultural, economic, religious, relationship factors, and psychological issues is discussed in order to encourage research relevant to women's sexual decision-making.     

Perceptions of Divine Figures Among Polish People Struggling with Homelessness or Alcohol Addiction

This study aimed to investigate antecedents of positive perceptions of divine agents and the optimistic assumption that the world is meaningful, basically good and trustworthy, as found in Polish men and women who struggle with homelessness or alcohol addiction. In the largely understudied groups of people who were homeless (n = 111) or alcohol addicted (n = 120), we confirmed that communal orientation is a consistent precursor of beliefs in supernatural agents such as God, the Devil and angels, as well as positive perceptions of both God and guardian angels. The antecedents of basic trust varied across participant groups. However, among them were positive attitudes toward God, communal orientation, and a deferring problem-solving style. Additionally, we found asymmetric links between perceptions of divine agents and both duration of addiction and duration of therapy in the addicted group. The former was related to a less positive perception of guardian angels and less perceived collaboration with God, whereas the latter was linked to a more positive perception of angels and more collaboration with God in problem-solving. We discuss the significance of a positive concept of divine beings for people who are homeless or alcohol addicted.     

Stressor exposure produces long-term reductions in antigen-specific T and B cell responses

Exposure to an acute laboratory stressor at the time of keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) immunization results in a long-term suppression in circulating anti-KLH antibody. The mechanism for the stress-induced reduction in anti-KLH immunoglobulin (Ig) remains unknown. Given that the generation of anti-KLH antibody requires T cell help, we hypothesize that stress reduces the proliferation of anti-KLH T cells, thus leading to a reduction in anti-KLH antibody. The present studies examined the effect of tail shock stress (100, 1.6 mA, 5-s, 60 s ITI) on the KLH specific T cell response. Fischer F344 rats were immunized either intraperitoneally (i.p.) or subcutaneously (s.c.) at the base of the tail with 200 microg KLH, and exposed to inescapable tail shock (IS) or remained in their home cages (HCC). T cell proliferation after KLH restimulation, but not ConA, was markedly suppressed in IS animals in both the spleen after i.p. immunization and the draining lymph nodes after s.c. immunization. Other secondary lymphoid cells did not differ in their proliferative capacity. Anti-KLH IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a, but not anti-KLH IgM serum levels were significantly suppressed. These data support the conclusion that stress suppresses the generation of antigen specific T cells. In addition, the methods employed in the current study allow the isolation of the site of the acquired T cell immune response, making it possible to further elucidate the cellular mechanisms that contribute to stress-induced modulation of the antigen-specific acquired immune response.     

Chronic Noise Exposure and Physiological Response: A Prospective Study of Children Living under Environmental Stress

Chronic exposure to aircraft noise elevated psychophysiological stress (resting blood pressure and overnight epinephrine and nonepinephrine) and depressed quality-of-life indicators over a 2-year period among 9- to 11-year-old children. Data collected before and after the inauguration of a major new international airport in noise-impacted and comparison communities show that noise significantly elevates stress among children at ambient levels far below those necessary to produce hearing damage.     

Travel choice and the goal/process utility distinction

The concept of utility emanating from decision theory is employed in applied research aiming to understand and forecast the travel choices the general public make. Related to a distinction between telic and autotelic motivational theories, it is argued that in this area the prevalent definition of utility as goal-related evaluations of outcomes of activities (goal utility) needs to be complemented by the notion that utility is also experienced from performing the activities themselves (process utility). The validity of the distinction thus introduced between goal and process utility was demonstrated empirically in two studies of choices of travel destinations. In Experiment 1, one group of students rated the likelihood of patronizing fictitious grocery stores and another group rated the likelihood of impulse purchases in these stores. In addition to travel time, the rated likelihood of patronizing the stores was independently affected by the number of desirable goods available to purchase (goal utility) and the quality of personal services provided by staff (process utility). In contrast, the rated likelihood of impulse purchases was only affected by the latter. In Experiment 2, similar results were obtained for choices of fictitious grocery stores by a representative sample of car-owning households participating in a travel survey.     

Speech anxiety and rapid emotional reactions to angry and happy facial expressions

The aim was to explore whether people high as opposed to low in speech anxiety react with a more pronounced differential facial response when exposed to angry and happy facial stimuli. High and low fear participants were selected based on their scores on a fear of public speaking questionnaire. All participants were exposed to pictures of angry and happy faces while facial electromyographic (EMG) activity from the Corrugator supercilii and the Zygomaticus major muscle regions was recorded. Skin conductance responses (SCR), heart rate (HR) and ratings were also collected. Participants high as opposed to low in speech anxiety displayed a larger differential corrugator responding, indicating a larger negative emotional reaction, between angry and happy faces. They also reacted with a larger differential zygomatic responding, indicating a larger positive emotional reaction, between happy and angry faces. Consistent with the facial reaction patterns, the high fear group rated angry faces as more unpleasant and as expressing more disgust, and further rated happy faces as more pleasant. There were no differences in SCR or HR responding between high and low speech anxiety groups. The present results support the hypothesis that people high in speech anxiety are disposed to show an exaggerated sensitivity and facial responsiveness to social stimuli.