A Logic for Multiple-source Approximation Systems with Distributed Knowledge Base

The theory of rough sets starts with the notion of an approximation space, which is a pair (U,R), U being the domain of discourse, and R an equivalence relation on U. R is taken to represent the knowledge base of an agent, and the induced partition reflects a granularity of U that is the result of a lack of complete information about the objects in U. The focus then is on approximations of concepts on the domain, in the context of the granularity. The present article studies the theory in the situation where information is obtained from different sources. The notion of approximation space is extended to define a multiple-source approximation system with distributed knowledge base, which is a tuple (U,R_P)_{Pßf N}(U,R_P)_{P\ss_f N}, where N is a set of sources and P ranges over all finite subsets of N. Each R _P is an equivalence relation on U satisfying some additional conditions, representing the knowledge base of the group P of sources. Thus each finite group of sources and hence individual source perceives the same domain differently (depending on what information the group/individual source has about the domain), and the same concept may then have approximations that differ with the groups. In order to express the notions and properties related with rough set theory in this multiple-source situation, a quantified modal logic LMSAS ^D is proposed. In LMSAS ^D , quantification ranges over modalities, making it different from modal predicate logic and modal logic with propositional quantifiers. Some fragments of LMSAS ^D are discussed and it is shown that the modal system KTB is embedded in LMSAS ^D . The epistemic logic S5^D_nS5^D_n is also embedded in LMSAS ^D , and cannot replace the latter to serve our purpose. The relationship of LMSAS ^D with first and second-order logics is presented. Issues of expressibility, axiomatization and decidability are addressed.     

Relationship Between Religious Belief and Happiness: A Systematic Literature Review

Happiness is a feeling that is desired by every human being. To achieve happiness, human try various routes like, to gain financial superiority, fame, entertainment, assets and so on. But on the contrary, religiosity is claimed to be a technique to attain purpose in life, mental health, physical well-being and internal peace, which ultimately leads to happiness in life. This study analyses the studies conducted in last two decades toward understanding the relationship between religiousness and happiness. These studies have been organised in terms of the religions, geographic locations, scales and significance. The study shows that the claim has proven to be true by a vast majority of the surveys irrespective of religion, gender, nationality or race. Although Muslims seems to be the happiest, it requires further verification.     

Can Religious Beliefs be a Protective Factor for Suicidal Behavior? A Decision Tree Analysis in a Mid-Sized City in Iran, 2013

This study aimed to assess using tree-based models the impact of different dimensions of religion and other risk factors on suicide attempts in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Three hundred patients who attempted suicide and 300 age- and sex-matched patient attendants with other types of disease who referred to Kerman Afzalipour Hospital were recruited for this study following a convenience sampling. Religiosity was assessed by the Duke University Religion Index. A tree-based model was constructed using the Gini Index as the homogeneity criterion. A complementary discrimination analysis was also applied. Variables contributing to the construction of the tree were stressful life events, mental disorder, family support, and religious belief. Strong religious belief was a protective factor for those with a low number of stressful life events and those with a high mental disorder score; 72 % of those who formed these two groups had not attempted suicide. Moreover, 63 % of those with a high number of stressful life events, strong family support, strong problem-solving skills, and a low mental disorder score were less likely to attempt suicide. The significance of four other variables, GHQ, problem-coping skills, friend support, and neuroticism, was revealed in the discrimination analysis. Religious beliefs seem to be an independent factor that can predict risk for suicidal behavior. Based on the decision tree, religious beliefs among people with a high number of stressful life events might not be a dissuading factor. Such subjects need more family support and problem-solving skills.     

On the Eye Movement Control of Changing Reading Direction for a Single Word: The Case of Reading Numerals in Urdu

Typically orthographies are consistent in terms of reading direction, i.e. from left-to-right or right-to-left. However, some are bidirectional, i.e., certain parts of the text, (such as numerals in Urdu), are read against the default reading direction. Such sudden changes in reading direction may challenge the reader in many ways, at the level of planning of saccadic eye movements, changing the direction of attention, word recognition processes and cognitive reading strategies. The present study attempts to understand how readers achieve such sudden changes in reading direction at the level of eye movements and conscious cognitive reading strategies. Urdu readers reported employing a two-stage strategy for reading numerals by first counting the number of digits during right-to-left fixations, and only then forming numeric representation during left-to-right fixations. Eye movement findings were aligned with this strategy usage, as long numerals were often read with deliberate forward-and-backward fixation sequences. In these sequences fixations preceding saccades to default reading direction were shorter than against it, suggesting that different cognitive processes such as counting and formation of numeric representation were involved in fixations preceding left- and right-directed saccades. Finally, the change against the default reading direction was preceded by highly inflated fixation duration, pinpointing the oculomotor, attentional and cognitive demands in executing sudden changes in reading direction.     

The Philosopher and the Revolutionary State: How Karl Popper’s Ideas Shaped the Views of Iranian Intellectuals

The present paper is an attempt to explore the impact of Karl Popper’s ideas on the views of a number of intellectual groups in post‐revolutionary Iran. Throughout the text, we have tried to make use of original sources and our own personal experiences. The upshot of the arguments of the paper is that the Viennese philosopher has made a long‐lasting impression on the intellectual scene of present‐day Iran in that even those socio‐political groups which are not in favour of his ideas, especially his model of critical rationalism, have felt the urgent need to make themselves familiar with them. Moreover, many of Popper’s ideas have directly or indirectly influenced the thinking of the decision‐makers in Iran since 1978.     

Autonomy and equal right to divorce with specific reference to Shici fiqh and the Iranian legal system

In this article I argue for the equal right of both spouses to divorce, since moral autonomy as embodied in the right to self-determination calls for this. The powerful moral demand of the contemporary human rights discourse has left no choice for Western countries but to allow divorce to be granted when the parties consent. The same factor has pushed many Muslims, including Iranians, to reform their system in favour of women. The problem for Shi^cites, unlike Christians, was not the denial of the right to divorce to both parties, but rather the unilateral privilege of the husband. Their reform was thus to direct the system toward an egalitarian position rather than to establish permissibility. Yet, the compelling factor for both was the same, that is, the appeal to individual autonomy and the right to self-determination. We will see that moral reinterpretation of the Islamic sources can offer an egalitarian right to divorce without diluting fundamental qur'anic teachings. An essential prerequisite for such an achievement is a methodological shift from literalistic interpretation of the qur'anic teachings and authentic sunna to the moral spirit of the textual sources.     

Social representations of history and the legitimation of social inequality: the form and function of historical negation

Three studies examined the form and function of ideologies that negate (versus recognise) the historical basis of claims for reparation for past injustices. Historical negation (a) predicted opposition towards the resource‐specific aspects of social policy and (b) functioned as the mechanism though which majority group members high in a threat‐driven security‐cohesion motivation (indexed by right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA)) legitimated policy opposition in both undergraduate student (Study 1) and general population (Study 2) samples of the majority group (New Zealand Europeans/Pakeha). Study 3 experimentally manipulated historical negation in a general population sample using extracts adapted from political speeches, and demonstrated that historical negation increased opposition among liberal voters towards the resource‐specific aspects of bicultural policy. These results suggest that history serves an important symbolic function in mobilising support for public policies regarding intergroup relations because temporal continuity is central to claims of legitimacy, especially where resources are involved. Research in this area is important for any nation with a history of intergroup conflict, as it aids not only in understanding the form and function of historical narratives that legitimate social inequality, but also provides insight into the ways in which such discourses can be countered and re‐formulated in order to promote social equality. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive load and task condition in event- and time-based prospective memory: an experimental investigation

Prospective memory is memory for the realization of delayed intention. Researchers distinguish 2 kinds of prospective memory: event- and time-based (G. O. Einstein & M. A. McDaniel, 1990). Taking that distinction into account, the present authors explored participants' comparative performance under event- and time-based tasks. In an experimental study of 80 participants, the authors investigated the roles of cognitive load and task condition in prospective memory. Cognitive load (low vs. high) and task condition (event- vs. time-based task) were the independent variables. Accuracy in prospective memory was the dependent variable. Results showed significant differential effects under event- and time-based tasks. However, the effect of cognitive load was more detrimental in time-based prospective memory. Results also revealed that time monitoring is critical in successful performance of time estimation and so in time-based prospective memory. Similarly, participants' better performance on the event-based prospective memory task showed that they acted on the basis of environment cues. Event-based prospective memory was environmentally cued; time-based prospective memory required self-initiation.