Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: the mobilization-minimization hypothesis

Negative (adverse or threatening) events evoke strong and rapid physiological, cognitive, emotional, and social responses. This mobilization of the organism is followed by physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses that damp down, minimize, and even erase the impact of that event. This pattern of mobilization-minimization appears to be greater for negative events than for neutral or positive events. Theoretical accounts of this response pattern are reviewed. It is concluded that no single theoretical mechanism can explain the mobilization-minimization pattern, but that a family of integrated process models, encompassing different classes of responses, may account for this pattern of parallel but disparately caused effects.     

Ecological interventions and the process of change for prevention: Wedding theory and research to implementation in real world settings

Considers a preventive intervention effort designed to modify the characteristics and regularities of the school environment so as to enhance the expectations conveyed to high risk students. Employing this case effort (Weinstein et al., 1991) as a base, several issues are highlighted that deserve greater attention in the design, implementation, assessment, and reporting of other preventively-focused social interventions. These issues include: (1) the degree of program implementation fidelity, (2) the impact a lack of attainment of program fidelity may have on arriving at erroneous evaluation conclusions about social programs, (3) the ways in which the theory and basic research employed in the program rationale is appropriate to and reflected in the program as designed, (4) issues of program potency and dosage, (5) the ways in which quantitative and qualitative evaluation data can enhance each other, and (6) the import of evaluability assessments of programs prior to moving to outcome evaluations. In addressing these issues, the importance of developmentally- and ecologically-informed program formulations is underscored. Finally, the critical role that program reports such as the Weinstein paper, with its careful discussion of both the process of implementation and outcome assessments, can play in the development of more effective prevention program implementation efforts is highlighted.     

AIDS-related factors predictive of suicidal ideation of low and high intent among gay and bisexual men.

AIDS-related stressors were studied in relationship to suicidal ideation and suicide intent among 778 gay and bisexual men (none with AIDS). Over the previous six months, 27% (n = 212) reported suicidal ideation. Subjects who reported suicidal ideation (compared to those who did not) were more likely to report recent (last 6 months) bereavement of partner, recent ARC diagnosis, and multiple close friends with ARC. Suicide ideators were divided by a median split on a self-report scale of suicide intent into low (n = 105) and high (n = 107) intent suicide ideators. News of HIV seropositivity was specifically related to low intent suicidal ideation. High intent suicidal ideation was associated with having a partner with AIDS or ARC, or multiple close friends with AIDS, or having ARC. Generally speaking, while temporally discrete AIDS-related events were associated the report of suicidal ideation, ongoing stressors which may more greatly challenge adaptational capacities were more associated with high intent suicidal ideation.     

ODAP: a stand-alone program for observational data acquisition

A software program written to collect real-time, observational data is described. The flexible program allows customized behavior codes and observational durations and simultaneously records both timed and counted events. The data are collected by means of single keystrokes, automatically stored to disk with 100th of a second resolution and summarized for each observational session. The program’s database files are dBASE III PLUS compatible and may be browsed, edited, or converted to ASCII files from the program’s main menu. Field testing demonstrated the efficiency and interobserver reliability of the program (for frequency,r=0.81; for durational behaviors,rs=0.89 and 0.96). The software operates on IBM XT/AT/PS 2s and most clones with PC/MS DOS version 2.0 or greater.     

Parent and child causal attributions during clinical interviews

Attributions made by children and their parents for the cause of the child's clinical problem were monitored during assessment interviews. Results support previously observed differences obtained through questionnaires, with parents making more attributions than their children to characteristics of the child. This pattern was affected by variations in interview format. Parents and children differed in the locus of their attributions when interviewed individually, but these differences were not present when families were interviewed with both parents and children present. Implications for the methodology of attribution research with child-clinical populations are highlighted.     

Alcohol dependence,beliefs and the priming effect

Twenty hospitalized alcoholics served as their own controls in a study which sought to compare psychophysiological and cognitive factors as mediating influences on the priming effect of alcohol. Ten subjects were independently assessed by a psychiatrist as being severely dependent on alcohol and ten as mildly or moderately alcohol dependent. Physiological, behavioural and subjective indices of the motivation to drink alcohol were employed 15 and 60 min after subjects had consumed beverages on four separate occasions corresponding to four priming conditions. These priming drinks contained either 60 ml vodka in heavy dilution or just tonic water, and in each of these conditions subjects were either led to believe that the beverages contained alcohol or they had no alcohol. The severely-dependent group displayed a degree of concordance between the indices of motivation to drink, and the levels of these tended to be significantly higher than in the less-dependent subjects. The results suggest that severely alcohol-dependent subjects were more disposed to drink 60 min after consuming alcoholic drinks than after soft drinks, regardless of whether they believed that the priming drinks had contained alcohol. Cognitive factors assumed greater importance for the drinking behaviour of less-dependent subjects, although there was evidence of discordance across behavioural, physiological and subjective measures for this group.     

Structural models for the mediation of salience effects on attribution

Previous research has demonstrated that salient information is overrepresented in causal attributions. Two experiments were conducted to investigate potential mediators for this effect and to make a case for the use of structural models in explanations of process. Two mediators were considered: enhanced visual recall of salient stimuli and exaggerated schema-relevant recall of salient stimuli. Although analyses of variance supported the visual recall model, structural analyses demonstrated its implausibility. Analyses of variance and structural models revealed that schema-relevant recall, that is, information seen as representative of causal influence, is a plausible mediator; this was particularly true of relevant visual information. Results suggest that salience effects (S. E. Taylor & S. T. Fiske in L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 11). New York: Academic Press, 1978) are due to: (a) the attentional advantage of inherently salient visual events and (b) the influence of stored visual and nonvisual schema-relevant information on causal judgments.     

Imaging,empathy, and causal attribution

Three studies were conducted to test whether imagery accounts for the effects of empathy on attributions, that is, whether attributers construct and scan a mental image of social scenarios the same way that actual participants scan a real environment. According to this interpretation, attributers “see” the world as the participant does and make vicarious attributions. An alternative interpretation holds that subjects base vicarious attributions on recreating the motivations and affect of the actor, so that imaging is irrelevant to empathy and attributions. In the first study, subjects who imagined a story from the perspective of a particular character later showed differential recall of story details as a function of role, but not differential attributions. In Experiment 2, role-taking subjects showed clear effects of imaged perspective on recall for story details, but no effects on attributions of causality for an accident. Further, recall and attribution were uncorrelated. In the last study, empathy and imagery role-taking instructions produced independent effects: imagers showed pronounced perspective-relevant recall and empathizers did not. Neither showed unambiguous vicarious attributions. Recall and attribution were again uncorrelated. These studies suggest that the imagery explanation of empathy effects is untenable, and imply that the recall of perspective-relevant details is unlikely to mediate attributions of causality in imaginary scenarios.     

Fact and fantasy: the roles of accuracy and variability in confusing imaginations with perceptual experiences

In Experiment 1, pictures were presented to subjects two, five, or eight times, and subjects were asked to imagine each pciture two, five, or eight times. Subsequently, subjects estimated the number of times each picture had been presented. Their estimates of the frequency of these external events were influenced by imagination trials; this effect was greater for good imagers than for poor imagers. Experiment 2 involved a similar design in which subjects were asked either to imagine the same referent for a word or to imagine a different referent for a word on successive imagination trials. Consistency (same referent) did not increase the influence of imaginations on immediate judgments of external frequency. Thus, the results of Experiment 1 were attributed to the greater accuracy (as opposed to greater consistency) of good imagers' internal generations of the stimuli. Furthermore, variation (imagining different referents), like greater accuracy, increased the effects of imagination trials on immediate but not on delayed judgments of frequency. Possible mechanisms underlying these effects are discussed. In general, the two studies show that qualitative characteristics of completely covert generations influence their impact on estimates of the frequency of external events.