The roles of location specificity and masking mechanisms in the attentional blink

In a series of four experiments using rapid serial visual presentations of two target letters embedded in numeral distractors, with different numbers of display positions and with or without masking, we show that (1) the nonmonotonic, U-shaped attentional blink (AB) function, which occurs when all items are presented at the same display location, is eliminated in favor of a monotonic function when targets and distractors are presented randomly dispersed over four or nine adjacent positions; (2) the AB monotonicity is maintained with the spatially distributed presentation even when backward masks are used in all possible stimulus positions and when the location of the next item in sequence is predictable; and (3) the If-shaped AB is not due to position-specific forward or backward masking effects occurring at early levels of visual processing. We tentatively conclude that the U-shaped AB is primarily a function of the interruption of late visual processing produced when the item following the first target occurs at the same location. In order for the AB to severely disrupt performance, the item following the first target must be presented at the same location as the target so that it can serve both as a distractor and as a mask interrupting or interfering with subsequent visual processing.     

Studies of the cognitive representation of spatial relations: II. A familiar environment

This experiment tested the ability of people to recall the locations of buildings in a familiar campus setting. Ten graduate students represented the relative locations of buildings by pairwise distance judgments (on a 100-point scale) and by direct mapping of locations on a Tektronix cathode ray terminal. As evaluated by Stevens's power law, both methods led to accurate judgments of relative distance (the average exponent was close to 1). In addition, the pairwise judgments were analyzed by multidimensional scaling (MDS) and the buildings were located in a two-dimensional map. When asked to choose between the MDS representation and the map created directly on the Tektronix, all 10 subjects chose the latter as the more accurate. Moreover, 6 out of 10 subjects thought the direct map was more accurate than the actual map of the building locations. These results suggest that either pairwise judgment or direct mapping yield accurative representations of spatial relations in a familial environment, but that subjects favor the direct map.     

Development of strategies for recalling letter sequences

Kindergarten, second-grade, and fourth-grade children (6, 8, and 10 years of age, respectively) were asked to recall letter sequences on a task that required the use of: (a) a verbal strategy; (b) a positional strategy; or (c) either strategy. Additional trials, allowing either strategy, were interspersed among those requiring a verbal or positional strategy; strategy use was determined from performance on these interspersed trials. The results show that children at all grade levels attempted to use a task-appropriate strategy. Performance on the verbal task showed a more marked developmental increase than did performance on the positional task. A second experiment replicated the first with the interspersed trials removed. A third experiment was designed to determine whether letter names interfered with older children's efficient use of a positional strategy. Even with this source of interference removed, the developmental pattern of Experiments 1 and 2 was replicated. There was a Sex by Condition interaction in Experiments 2 and 3 which showed that males do better in the condition requiring a positional strategy, and females do better in the condition requiring a verbal strategy.     

Segmenting the stream of consciousness: the psychological correlates of temporal structures in the time series data of a continuous performance task

Using principal component analysis, we examined whether structural properties in the time series of response time would identify different mental states during a continuous performance task. We examined whether it was possible to identify regular patterns which were present in blocks classified as lacking controlled processing, either behaviourally (as a failure to withhold a response to a target) or subjectively (as an off task report at a thought probe). Principal component analysis identified three components present in response times accounting for 58.8% of the variance in the data. Of these components, the second largest factor showed two features that implied it was a marker for mind wandering. First, it was stronger under slow relative to fast stimulus presentation conditions, and so paralleled the distribution of mind wandering reports. Second, it was more powerful prior to behaviour markers of mind wandering (failures in response inhibition) and less powerful prior to reports of task focused thinking (on task reports). Taken together, the use of principal components analysis on response times seem a viable tool for differentiating different mental states and so could help identify the neural substrates which underpin mind wandering and other subjective states.     

The lights are on but no one’s home: Meta-awareness and the decoupling of attention when the mind wanders

In a recent review, we suggested that an important aspect of mind-wandering is whether participants are aware that they are off task (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). We tested this hypothesis by examining the informationprocessing correlates of mind wandering with and without awareness in a task requiring participants to encode words and detect targets with either a high or a low probability. Target detection was measured via response inhibition. Mind wandering in the absence of awareness was associated with a failure to supervise task performance, as indicated by short RTs, and was predictive of failures in response inhibition. Under conditions of low target probability, mind wandering was associated with a relative absence of the influence of recollection at retrieval. The results are consistent with the notion that mind wandering involves a state of decoupled attention and emphasizes the importance of meta-awareness of off-task episodes in determining the consequences of these mental states.     

Explicit Sexual Movie Viewing in the United States According to Selected Marriage and Lifestyle,Work and Financial,Religion and Political Factors

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate explicit sexual movie use among men and women in the United States according to relationship, lifestyle, work, financial, religious, and political factors. Analyses involved 11,372 adults who responded to questions about demographics and explicitly sexual movie use in the General Social Survey (GSS) from 2000 to 2014. Viewing of an explicit sexual movie in the previous year was significantly greater in men than women (35 vs. 16%); Blacks than Whites (33 vs. 22%); and never married (41 vs. 18% married, 31% separated, and 24% divorced). It also decreased with older age, higher education, and more children in the household. After model adjustment for these variables, viewing an explicit sexual movie was associated with a number of relationship, lifestyle, financial, religious, political, and other variables. For example, viewing such movies was related to less happiness in marriage, multiple sex partners in past year, less satisfaction with one’s financial situation, no religious preference, and a more liberal political orientation. The effect of some variables on pornography viewing differed between men and women. For example, out of men and women who consider themselves to be “not spiritual”, men were more likely to view pornography than women. Explicit sexual movie viewing is associated with factors from diverse domains, including poorer relationship quality, more liberal sexual views and practices, poorer economic conditions, lower religious orientation or commitment, and more liberal political views.     

Perceptions of unconditional and conditional worth among college students

Self-esteem scales tend to represent conditional perceptions of self-esteem. The Worth Index has been previously validated as an effective measure for identifying both conditional and unconditional perceptions of worth. We administered the Worth Index to 1,161 college-aged students at Brigham Young University to assess their current perceptions of unconditional and conditional worth. Both men and women agreed more strongly with items involving unconditional worth than conditional worth. A negative correlation was found between ratings of unconditional and conditional worth. Women had lower unconditional worth scores than men, which was related to being more likely to wish they were someone else, desire to have a better body, and to being concerned about weight. Agreement with two overview measures of self-esteem involving a "good" sense of self and stability of self-esteem was positively associated with agreement on statements about unconditional worth. This research shows the importance of incorporating unconditional worth into self-esteem measures.     

Substance abusers: role of personal and professional role traits in caregivers' causal attributions

Substance abuse continues to be a major health problem compounded by caregivers' negative attitudes toward these patients. We investigated attributions 55 primary care physicians and 315 senior medical students make toward substance abusers. Half of both groups expressed negative causal attributions, with women slightly less negative than men. Mental models based on LISREL regression coefficients showed that higher negative attributions by both physicians and students were related to their increased authoritarianism and depressed mood. Medical students choosing careers in primary care specialties, including psychiatry, expressed a less negative attributional style toward substance abusers than those students entering nonprimary careers. Health professional educators may find that using attribution theory to redefine successful outcomes in management of substance abuse can result in better attitudes for caregivers.