Exercise dependence and associated disorders: A review

While the term exercise addiction has been largely rejected in favour of, for example, exercise dependence, the association of exercise with addiction stems from Glasser (1976) who differentiated between positive and negative addiction to running, being analogous to commitment and dependence, respectively. There are a number of possible explanations for exercise dependence, the more popular being based upon endorphin production and on personality. A key issue for research is to determine the threshold between commitment and dependence; that is, how much exercise is necessary to benefit mental health, and how much is too much? In addition, a holistic approach incorporating biological, social and situation-specific, as well as psychological factors, is supported in order to explain further the reasons for an exercise-dependent lifestyle. While ‘compulsive athleticism” (Yam et al., 1994) presents a cause for concern, and although it is not yet possible to identify, unequivocally the antecedents of this behaviour, it is proposed that a counselling approach to the problem of exercise dependence and associated negative self-perception may be timely.     

Recall accuracy and illusory memories: when more is less

In two experiments it was revealed that manipulations that increased recall of studied list items also increased false recall of theme-related, critical nonpresented words. In Experiment 1 subjects listened to a series of short word lists, each containing items associatively related to a theme, while engaging in either semantic or nonsemantic processing. On an immediate free recall test semantic processors demonstrated greater correct recall as well as more illusory memories of critical nonpresented items than nonsemantic processors. In Experiment 2, the short study lists were combined to form longer lists that were presented either blocked by theme or in a random presentation order. Retention interval was also varied as participants were tested either immediately, one week after, or three weeks after the study phase. Presenting the target items in a blocked, as opposed to random, format increased recall accuracy, but this was at the expense of a higher intrusion rate for theme-consistent items. Interestingly, the level of false memories was not affected by retention interval even though typical decrements in the recall of study items were observed over time. The results of these experiments highlight the persistence of the false memory effect, as well as pointing to several factors, primarily semantic processing, that may lead to the creation of false memories. Interpretations are offered within the theoretical frameworks of source monitoring and fuzzy trace theory.     

Ministers evaluate their training in marriage counseling

Summary The results of the study described above have certain implications for planning future training programs. Teaching in this particular field must be primarily learner centered, rather than subject centered. This is borne out by the choices of the respondents that indicate the importance of understanding of the self, and own attitudes, biases, and feelings as they affect the counselor's capacity within the helping relationship; and the emphasis placed upon the strongly teacher-learner-centered method—supervision—as of primary importance. Thus, supervision, which offers support and understanding to the trainee as he struggles to integrate new knowledge and to develop increased sensitivity to others, greater flexibility, and skill, assumes a tremendously important part of the total training experience. This has implications for the training center in relation to the quality and quantity of supervision available to the training person.The question of insufficient time may have psychological as well as practical implications. The importance of a realistic schedule is ovious. The other aspect of this question may have to do with integration and need for time in assimilating a learning experience that requires change and necessarily involves strongly charged affective components. This raises the question of how to maintain a balance between the inevitable anxiety aroused in a new situation, which motivates learning, and excessive anxiety, which may impede progress if the individual becomes more involved in coping with himself than in learning.The need for more training in family-life education is also indicated.     

Competition, cooperation, satisfaction, and the performance of complex tasks among air force cadets

Forty-eight U.S. Air Force Academy cadets were studied to examine the effects of individual attitudes and organizational reward structures on the performance of a complex, integrative task. An attitudinal survey was used to measure each subject’s preference for cooperative or competitive situations. Distinctly different group environments were created by giving four groups of six subjectscompetitive instructions and another four groupscooperative instructions. The performance criterion was the “sum” score across eight trials of a complex arcade-type computer game which required one subject to control horizontal movement and another to control vertical movement. Although neither attitude nor reward structure alone influenced performance, their interaction was found to be very significant; subjects performed poorly when the reward structure did not match their individual orientation. Implications for military and professional training programs are discussed.     

Activist purpose orientation: Definition and predictors

Activism is responsible for many of the positive social changes we have seen across time, and is central to pushing for continued social change. However, these positive outcomes do not come without a cost, as activism can also be draining and can lead to physical and emotional harm for those involved. Social policies and intervention programs have addressed how to help people maintain their engagement with activism aims, though few have considered the motivational role of purpose in life. As purpose in life involves a sustained commitment to one's goals, having a purpose in life centered around activism may help an individual remain committed to activism and to the creation of change in the face of these obstacles. If activist purpose can help us understand and predict who is likely to remain engaged in activism, then it is valuable to consider what factors influence the development of activist purpose, in order to continue necessary social change. Thus, in this work we define activist purpose, and theorize as to what factors may be relevant to the development of an activist purpose by situating predictors of activism and collective action within the literature on pathways to purpose in life. This work may thus provide a greater understanding of how to encourage activism or reduce the harmful effects associated with activism.     

Stereotype content of people with acquired brain injury: Warm but incompetent

Since stereotypes about people with acquired brain injury (ABI) can lead to prejudice, studying these stereotypes is highly important. In two studies, we examined these stereotypes both on idiosyncratic dimensions and on the two dimensions of the Stereotype Content Model. Participants completed a specific questionnaire about ABI and warmth and competence questionnaires regarding people with ABI and other social groups. Specific stereotypes about ABI were found to be underpinned by dimensions of “cognitive impairments and ADL limitations,” “catastrophic outcomes,” and “personal and interpersonal development.” Within the model, people with ABI were seen as being warm but incompetent. The ambivalent ABI stereotype could elicit prejudicial attitudes that may impede rehabilitation.