Truth and character: sources that older adults can remember

Are age differences in source memory inevitable? The two experiments reported here examined the hypothesis that the type of source information being tested mediates the magnitude of age differences in source memory. In these studies, participants listened to statements made by two different speakers. We compared younger and older adults' source memory in a traditional perceptual source task (memory for voice) and in two affective, conceptually based source tasks (truth of the statements, character of a person in a photo). In both studies, the perceptual and conceptual source information were conveyed in the same manner, as one speaker was associated with one type of information (e.g., female voice speaks truth). Age differences were robust for decisions regarding who said each statement but were negligible or truth or character decisions. These findings are provocative because they suggest that the type of information can influence age-related patterns of performance for source-conveyed information.     

A Monte Carlo evaluation of tests for comparing dependent correlations

The authors conducted a Monte Carlo simulation of 8 statistical tests for comparing dependent zero-order correlations. In particular, they evaluated the Type I error rates and power of a number of test statistics for sample sizes (Ns) of 20, 50, 100, and 300 under 3 different population distributions (normal, uniform, and exponential). For the Type I error rate analyses, the authors evaluated 3 different magnitudes of the predictor-criterion correlations (rho(y,x1) = rho(y,x2) = .1, .4, and .7). For the power analyses, they examined 3 different effect sizes or magnitudes of discrepancy between rho(y,x1) and rho(y,x2) (values of .1, .3, and .6). They conducted all of the simulations at 3 different levels of predictor intercorrelation (rho(x1,x2) = .1, .3, and .6). The results indicated that both Type I error rate and power depend not only on sample size and population distribution, but also on (a) the predictor intercorrelation and (b) the effect size (for power) or the magnitude of the predictor-criterion correlations (for Type I error rate). When the authors considered Type I error rate and power simultaneously, the findings suggested that O. J. Dunn and V. A. Clark's (1969) z and E. J. Williams's (1959) t have the best overall statistical properties. The findings extend and refine previous simulation research and as such, should have greater utility for applied researchers.     

Imaginal perspective switches in remembered environments: transformation versus interference accounts

Imaginal perspective switches are often considered to be difficult, because they call for additional cognitive transformations of object coordinates (transformation hypothesis). Recent research suggests that problems can also result from conflicts between incompatible sensorimotor and cognitive object location codes during response specification and selection (interference hypothesis). Three experiments tested contrasting predictions of both accounts. Volunteers had to point to unseen object locations after imagined self-rotations and self-translations. Results revealed larger pointing latencies and errors for rotations as compared to translations, and monotic latency and error increases for both tasks as a function of the disparity of object directions between real and imagined perspective. Provision of advance information about the to-be-imagined perspective left both effects unchanged. These results, together with those from a systematic error analysis, deliver clear support for an interference account of imaginal perspective switches in remembered surroundings.     

Stationary phantoms and grating induction with oblique inducing gratings: implications for different mechanisms underlying the two phenomena

The visibility of stationary visual phantoms and the grating induction (GI) effect were concurrently analyzed with both black and gray inspection areas (IA) using the same subjects with counterbalanced orders of measurements. Oblique inducing gratings were employed in order to compare the visibility of obliquely aligned and vertically misaligned appearances between the two phenomena. Aligned and misaligned phantom responses with a black IA were similar, whereas overall phantom visibility was severely suppressed when the IA was gray. In contrast, misaligned GI dominated with a gray IA, whereas aligned and misaligned GI responses were similar with a black IA. Phantoms appear to be related to visual mechanisms’ selectively utilizing relative luminance information between the inducing grating and IA in a manner consistent with more global figural characteristics of the display (e.g., modal and amodal completion). On the other hand, GI may be predominantly due to locally operating brightness/contrast mechanisms.     

Frames of Reference in Self-Reports of Health,Well-Being,Fatigue, and Pain: a Qualitative Examination

Self-reports in survey research can be affected by internal comparison standards, or Frames of Reference (FoRs), that people apply when making their ratings. The goal of this study was to determine which FoRs people naturally use when rating their health, subjective well-being, fatigue, and pain. We further examined whether FoRs varied by content domain and age group. One hundred adults from a community sample of the US general population participated in individual semi-structured qualitative interviews. Participants provided self-report ratings on two of the four content domains and were then systematically queried about FoRs. Interview responses were summarized and coded into broad FoR categories. Four broad FoR categories emerged: References to (1) Other People, (2) an Earlier Time in Life, (3) an Important Event in the Past, and (4) a Hypothetical Situation. FoRs were reported in the majority (80.5%) of responses and multiple FoRs were reported in 34% of responses. The reporting of FoRs was evident for all domains, but was more prevalent for well-being compared to pain. References to a Hypothetical Situation were only mentioned in the well-being and health domains. For health, references to Other People were more frequently reported at older compared to younger ages. Our results extend prior work by demonstrating that participants’ reporting of FoRs is evident in ratings of various content domains. They further suggest that a limited number of FoRs are used and that their identification holds promise for understanding and controlling systematic group differences in FoRs.     

Qualitative analysis of feedback on functional imagery training: A novel motivational intervention for type 2 diabetes

Objective: Effective motivational support is needed in chronic disease management. This study was undertaken to improve a novel type 2 diabetes motivational intervention, (functional imagery training, FIT) based on participant feedback and results from a self-management randomised controlled trial.

Design: Qualitative inductive thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews.

Main outcome measures: Open-ended questions on participant experiences of the FIT intervention content, process, most/least helpful features, suggestions for improvement and general feedback.

Results: Eight themes emerged. Participants thought FIT promoted autonomy and self-awareness. They found the intervention interesting and helpful in keeping their health on track through accountability provided by regular phone calls. However, boredom with repetitive use of imagery, feeling inadequately equipped to manage unhealthy cravings, and difficulty with the time commitment was reported by some. Supplementary written material was recommended.

Conclusion: Several well-received features of FIT overlapped with those from traditional motivational interviewing. FIT sessions should ensure content is regularly adapted to new health-enhancing goals. After self-management behaviour becomes habitual, imagery practice could be restricted to challenging contexts. Provision of a written rationale and use of mindfulness for cravings is recommended. With these improvements, the impact of FIT on diabetic control may be substantially enhanced.     

The Emergence and Decline of Southern Baptist Congregations in a Southeastern County, 1784–2011: An Ecological Analysis

Studies of the growth and decline of religious organizations tend to focus on the ability of American religious institutions to adapt within an open market system, but theories of adaptation may overstate the ability of organizations to respond to changes in their environment. Theories of selection, on the other hand, emphasize the role environmental forces play in organizational growth and decline. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the usefulness of an ecological theory of selection for modeling growth and decline in a population of religious organizations. To test this model, I use historical data on a population of Southern Baptist congregations in the southeastern United States from 1784 to 2011. My analyses indicate that the processes of denominational growth and decline are consistent with the expectations of ecological theories of selection.     

Gender is what you look like: Emerging gender identities in young children and preoccupation with appearance

Abstract

Our work examining young children’s strong desire to wear gender-stereotypical clothing suggests that physical appearance may be early reflections of developing gender identities. We test implications of this association between gender and appearance with two studies examining young children’s preoccupation with looking pretty or handsome. Findings revealed that being more attuned to gender information was linked to greater appearance preoccupation. Girls were more preoccupied with their appearances compared to boys. Age was associated with greater appearance preoccupation in two of our three measures. These studies suggest that appearances may reflect developing gender identities, and that gender identity development can influence children’s appearance preoccupation. We suggest that future research examine the stability and generalizability of appearance preoccupation.     

Imaginal repositioning in everyday environments: effects of testing method and setting

Two experiments examined spatial knowledge access after imagined perspective switches in everyday environments. Blindfolded volunteers had to point to target objects in a well-known surrounding while imagining being repositioned into different spatial perspectives defined as self-rotations of the observer in the horizontal plane (0 degrees , 45 degrees , and 135 degrees ). Testing was either conducted in the space the target locations had been learned in (actual room testing), or while participants were away from this room, but should imagine being situated there (remote room testing). Experiment 1, in which perspective switches were tested on a trial-to-trial basis, revealed increases in pointing latency and error as a function of the amount of angular disparity between real and imagined perspective under actual and remote room conditions. Experiment 2, in which knowledge access was tested in blocks of multiple trials per perspective, showed increases in pointing latency with angular disparity for actual space testing, and to a much lesser degree for remote space testing. Implications of both findings for theoretical accounts of knowledge access after imaginal perspective switches are discussed, and recommendations for using different testing methods and settings are given.