Necessity (not just novelty) is the mother of invention: using creativity research to improve research in work and organizational psychology

In this essay, we discuss reasons that work and organizational psychology does not live up to its self-declared mission of being an applied science in the service of improving both people’s quality of working life and organizational effectiveness. We use fundamentals of research on creativity and innovation as a lens through which we can view problems and possible solutions to these problems. In particular, we stress that innovation entails not only new, but also useful insights, that innovation requires “rewarding failure”, and that innovation feeds off of team diversity. We provide suggestions for how the definition of theoretical and empirical contributions of research, reward systems, and collaboration practices could be changed to foster innovative research that helps people thrive at work.     

Apparent Incentive Contrast Effects in Autoshaping with Rats

The effects of shifts in reward quality and quantity on Pavlovian acquisition were studied in rats. In Experiment 1, animals preexposed to unsignaled food pellets, 10% sucrose solution, or home cage controls subsequently received autoshaping training (response-independent lever-pellet or lever-solution pairings, in three groups each). Unsignaled preexposure to sucrose solution facilitated autoshaping for pellets (relative to unshifted controls), whereas unsignaled preexposure to pellets retarded autoshaping for sucrose solution. In Experiment 2, unsignaled preexposure to 30% sucrose solution impaired acquisition reinforced by food pellets, relative to 2% solution. Using a choice procedure, Experiment 3 demonstrated that rats prefer pellets to either 2 or 10% sucrose solutions, but they prefer the 30% solution to the pellets. Experiment 4 demonstrated the facilitatory effect after an upward shift in reward magnitude rather than quality (from 1 to 12 pellets), but provided weaker evidence for retardation following a downward magnitude shift. Experiment 5 was similar to Experiment 4, except that animals received autoshaping training from the outset. No evidence of successive positive contrast was obtained, but there was a significant successive negative contrast effect. Moreover, extinction was faster after acquisition with 12 pellets rather than 1. These results suggest the presence of incentive contrast effects under Pavlovian training conditions.     

Attributions and Appraisals of Workplace Incivility: Finding Light on the Dark Side?

Ample research demonstrates that workplace incivility has individual and organisational costs, but an important question remains unanswered: might it have benefits as well? We investigate this possibility by focusing on incivility appraisals—both negative and challenge appraisals (i.e. as an opportunity for learning, growth)—and their correlates. To explain this diversity of appraisals, we examine whether attributions (i.e. perceived intent to harm, perceived perpetrator control) predict perceptions. We conducted two multi‐method (quantitative and qualitative) surveys, one of which was multi‐source, of employees across a range of occupations. In Study 1, attributions that perpetrators acted with control and malicious intent fuelled negative appraisals of incivility, which undermined job satisfaction. Study 2 added to these findings by demonstrating that some targets formed challenge appraisals of uncivil encounters, especially when they attributed low malicious intent to perpetrators; challenge appraisal related to boosts in job satisfaction and thriving. These attitudinal outcomes then positively related to organisational citizenship behaviour, as reported by targets' coworkers. Showing paths to incivility harm (and potential benefit), our findings can inform interventions to alter the impact of workplace incivility.     

Three-dimensional virtual environments for blind children.

Information technologies are increasingly helping to integrate and socially include people with visual disabilities. Computing technologies have contributed grandly to attain this goal through innovative techniques and applications. Virtual environments, I/O interfaces, and sound based applications altogether with usability and cognitive impact studies are some of the most used research designs for children with visual disabilities. This study presents the design and usability evaluation of three-dimensional (3D) interactive environments for children with visual disabilities. We introduce AudioChile and AudioVida, interactive virtual environments that can be navigated through 3D sound to enhance spatiality and immersion throughout the environments 3D sound is used to orientate, to avoid obstacles, and to identify the position of diverse personages and objects within the environment. Usability evaluation results indicated that sound can be fundamental for attention and motivation purposes during interaction.     

Duration of extinction trials as a determinant of instrumental extinction in terrestrial toads (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinella arenarum</Emphasis>)

Instrumental learning guides behavior toward resources. When such resources are no longer available, approach to previously reinforced locations is reduced, a process called extinction. The present experiments are concerned with factors affecting the extinction of acquired behaviors in toads. In previous experiments, total reward magnitude in acquisition and duration of extinction trials were confounded. The present experiments were designed to test the effects of these factors in factorial designs. Experiment 1 varied reward magnitude (900, 300, or 100 s of water access per trial) and amount of acquisition training (5 or 15 daily trials). With total amount of water access equated in acquisition, extinction with large rewards was faster (longer latencies in 900/5 than 300/15), but with total amount of training equated, extinction with small rewards was faster (longer latencies in 100/15 than 300/15). Experiment 2 varied reward magnitude (1200 or 120 s of water access per trial) while holding constant the number of acquisition trials (5 daily trials) and the duration of extinction trials (300 s). Extinction performance was lower with small, rather than large reward magnitude (longer latencies in 120/300 than in 1200/300). Thus, instrumental extinction depends upon the amount of time toads are exposed to the empty goal compartment during extinction trials.     

Pavlovian to instrumental transfer of control in a human learning task

Pavlovian learning tasks have been widely used as tools to understand basic cognitive and emotional processes in humans. The present studies investigated one particular task, Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT), with human participants in an effort to examine potential cognitive and emotional effects of Pavlovian cues upon instrumentally trained performance. In two experiments, subjects first learned two separate instrumental response-outcome relationships (i.e., R1-O1 and R2-O2) and then were exposed to various stimulus-outcome relationships (i.e., S1-O1, S2-O2, S3-O3, and S4-) before the effects of the Pavlovian stimuli on instrumental responding were assessed during a non-reinforced test. In Experiment 1, instrumental responding was established using a positive-reinforcement procedure, whereas in Experiment 2, a quasi-avoidance learning task was used. In both cases, the Pavlovian stimuli exerted selective control over instrumental responding, whereby S1 and S2 selectively elevated the instrumental response with which it shared an outcome. In addition, in Experiment 2, S3 exerted a nonselective transfer of control effect, whereby both responses were elevated over baseline levels. These data identify two ways, one specific and one general, in which Pavlovian processes can exert control over instrumental responding in human learning paradigms, suggesting that this method may serve as a useful tool in the study of basic cognitive and emotional processes in human learning.     

The surprising potency of implicit egotism: A reply to Simonsohn

This article addresses Simonsohn's (2011) critique of field studies of implicit egotism. We argue that Simonsohn provides no compelling theoretical reason to believe that implicit egotism should be valid only in the laboratory. In addition, we argue that a careful analysis of most of Simonsohn's studies of implicit egotism shows that they provide little or no power to reveal real effects of implicit egotism. We conclude that it is more constructive to try to identify theoretically derived moderators of implicit egotism than to try to document that it is always spurious in the field.     

Youth belonging and cognitive engagement in organized activities: A large-scale field study

Numerous studies of organized activities have found that participation is associated with a range of positive outcomes; however, findings from recent randomized trials have been more mixed. Understanding youth's psychological experiences of program involvement – their cognitive and emotional reaction to and participation in activities – may be key to understanding the influence of organized activities. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to investigate correlates of youth belonging and cognitive engagement in a sample of 1160 youth in 123 program offerings in 66 sites. Results revealed that intensity (frequency) of exposure positively predicted belonging and cognitive engagement; however, duration was negatively associated with cognitive engagement. The staff practice of providing a welcoming atmosphere predicted belonging; whereas provision of active skill-building predicted cognitive engagement. These relations were found to vary across content type.     

Review essay

The Legacy of Erich Fromm by Daniel Burston. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991, xi + 260 pp., $29.95.