Accessibility of potential referents following categorical anaphors

In 4 experiments, the authors investigated the accessibility of potential antecedents that were either referents or nonreferents of categorical anaphors using several methodologies. In 2 preliminary experiments, using an immediate probe recognition task, the authors replicated previous findings of inhibition for nonreferents following categorical anaphors. In Experiments 1-3, naming times to nonreferent probes were inhibited, but only at a delay and at the end of the sentence. Eye movements were monitored in Experiment 4, and reading times were found to be slower in end-of-sentence regions following the remention of the nonreferent but not on the nonreferent itself. These results suggest that decreases in nonreferent accessibility are due to postanaphoric processes, such as integrating the nonreferent into the discourse structure, and are not due to more immediate changes in activation occurring as part of the resolution process. Further, some inhibition effects may result from the use of probe tasks that require decisions.     

Murdoch's ontological argument

Anselm's ontological argument is an argument for the existence of God. This paper presents Iris Murdoch's ontological argument for the existence of the Good. It discusses her interpretation of Anselm's argument, her own distinctive appropriation of it, as well as some of the merits of her version of the argument. In doing so, it also shows how the argument integrates some key Murdochian ideas: morality's wide scope, the basicness of vision to morality, moral realism, and Platonism.     

A critique of the usefulness of inferential statistics in applied behavior analysis

Researchers continue to recommend that applied behavior analysts use inferential statistics in making decisions about effects of independent variables on dependent variables. In many other approaches to behavioral science, inferential statistics are the primary means for deciding the importance of effects. Several possible uses of inferential statistics are considered. Rather than being an objective means for making decisions about effects, as is often claimed, inferential statistics are shown to be subjective. It is argued that the use of inferential statistics adds nothing to the complex and admittedly subjective nonstatistical methods that are often employed in applied behavior analysis. Attacks on inferential statistics that are being made, perhaps with increasing frequency, by those who are not behavior analysts, are discussed. These attackers are calling for banning the use of inferential statistics in research publications and commonly recommend that behavioral scientists should switch to using statistics aimed at interval estimation or the method of confidence intervals. Interval estimation is shown to be contrary to the fundamental assumption of behavior analysis that only individuals behave. It is recommended that authors who wish to publish the results of inferential statistics be asked to justify them as a means for helping us to identify any ways in which they may be useful.     

ARTIFACTUAL EFFECTS OF SENSORY-INTEGRATIVE THERAPY ON SELF-INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR

Three individuals who exhibited self-injurious behavior (SIB) were exposed to sensory-integrative therapy. Prior to treatment, a functional analysis baseline was conducted to identify the motivational features of their SIB. One subject's SIB appeared to be an attention-getting response (maintained by positive reinforcement), which varied subsequently as a function of attention being either withheld or provided noncontingently during sensory-integration sessions. The 2nd subject displayed a pattern of responding suggestive of stereotypic SIB (maintained by automatic reinforcement), which paradoxically increased during sensory-integration sessions. The 3rd subject's SIB appeared to function as an escape response (maintained by negative reinforcement), and his behavior during sensory-integration sessions was similar to that observed during baseline sessions in which demands were not present. The SIB of all 3 subjects later was reduced when behavioral interventions were applied. The data presented raise questions about the active components of sensory-integrative therapy and the functional types of SIB for which it might be appropriate.     

Differences between Saimiri sciureus and Callicebus moloch in physiological responsiveness: implications for behavior

The New World primates Callicebus moloch and Saimiri sciureus differ markedly in life modes. Physiological responsiveness (heart rate, cortisol) of these related taxa was compared in two situations that differed in the presumed degree of stress imposed, exposure to a novel environment and physical restraint. In both situations, Saimiri exhibited higher initial levels of heart rate and corticosteroids. In addition, the species differed in their patterns of response to both situations. Saimiri maintained initial heart rate levels across a 1-hour exposure period, whereas Callicebus showed a marked and continuous decline in heart rate. Adrenocortical activity increased in both species in response to test situations, but the elevations in plasma corticosteroids were substantially greater for Saimiri than for Callicebus. The results indicate that the species differ with respect to organization of physiological regulatory systems in a manner consistent with behavioral contrasts between them.     

A PRACTICAL STRATEGY FOR ONGOING REINFORCER ASSESSMENT

There is a need for practical methods of reinforcer assessment that systematically track ongoing changes in clients' preferences. In this study, the effects of a time-efficient reinforcer assessment package were evaluated in a multiple baseline across 3 preschoolers with autism, comparing individualized item selections by experienced teachers with children's presession preferences for items of various sensory qualities. Systematic assessment of children's reinforcers for correct responding virtually eliminated nontargeted maladaptive behaviors, as well as yielding expected improvements in accuracy. The powerful side-effects of potent reinforcers underline the importance of increased attention to reinforcer assessment in research and practice.     

Racial‐ethnic Identity in Context: Examining Mediation of Neighborhood Factors on Children's Academic Adjustment

Research consistently shows that neighborhood socio‐demographic characteristics and residents’ neighborhood perceptions matter for youth well‐being, including a positive sense of racial‐ethnic identity. Although elementary‐school children are likely in the earlier phases of identity formation, the authors examined whether objective and subjective neighborhood characteristics are related to their racial‐ethnic identity and, in turn, their academic adjustment. A diverse sample (30.4% African American, 35.2% White, 12.3% Latino, & 22.0% Other) of 227 children in Grades 2 through 5 were surveyed in afterschool programs. Bivariate correlations showed that youth living in disadvantaged neighborhoods reported more barriers due to their race‐ethnicity, but these barriers were not related to their sense of academic efficacy. Residing in a disadvantaged neighborhood was unrelated to youth's academic self‐efficacy. However, path analyses showed that positive neighborhood perceptions were associated with a stronger sense of race‐ethnicity (i.e., affirmation and belonging), which was in turn related to greater academic efficacy. These results suggest that neighborhood connection provides a source of affirmation and value for young children, helping them to understand who they are as part of a racial‐ethnic group and helping to foster a sense of future achievement opportunities. This study provides additional evidence that along with other important proximal contexts (e.g., family, school), young children's neighborhood context is important for development. Results are discussed to highlight environmental influences on young children's awareness of race‐ethnicity and the implications of the combined impact of neighborhood and racial‐ethnic identity on psychosocial adjustment.     

Depressive thoughts limit working memory capacity in dysphoria

Dysphoria is associated with persistence of attention on mood-congruent information. Longer time attending to mood-congruent information for dysphoric individuals (DIs) detracts from goal-relevant information processing and should reduce working memory (WM) capacity. Study 1 showed that DIs and non-DIs have similar WM capacities. Study 2 embedded depressive information into a WM task. Compared to non-DIs, DIs showed significantly reduced WM capacity for goal-relevant information in this task. Study 3 replicated results from Studies 1 and 2, and further showed that DIs had a significantly greater association between processing speed and recall on the depressively modified WM task compared to non-DIs. The presence of inter-task depressive information leads to DI-related decreased WM capacity. Results suggest dysphoria-related WM capacity deficits when depressive thoughts are present. WM capacity deficits in the presence of depressive thoughts are a plausible mechanism to explain day-to-day memory and concentration difficulties associated with depressed mood.