Motivation concepts and sexual identity

The association dimension of the Picture Identification Test (PIT) was used to investigate the motivation concepts of male and female university students classified as Declared Homosexual, Sexually Uncertain, Clinical Control, and Normal Control. The t test was used to identify Need Association Dyads which discriminated (p < .01) groups. Greater than chance numbers of variables discriminated each of the pairs of groups within each sex except the Sexually Uncertain versus Clinical Control Male groups, the Declared Homosexual versus Clinical Control Female groups, and the Declared Homosexual versus Normal Control Female groups. PIT Need Association Dyads were discussed as a type of implicit personality theory assessment with emphasis on the beliefs subjects hold about the simultaneous expression of needs.     

Book Reviews

J oseph B. W heelwright (Ed): The analytic process: aims, analysis, training
A. A lvarez : The savage god
B ernard A aronson and H umphrey O smond (Eds.): Psychedelics: the uses and implications of hallucinogenic drugs
E rnst B ernhard : Mitobiografia
B arbara H annah : Striving towards wholeness
C raig R. E isendraht : The unifying moment: the psychological philosophy of William James and Alfred North Whitehead     

Visual and proprioceptive adaptation to altered oculomotor adjustments

Adaptation to spectacles that alter in equivalent amounts the accommodation and the convergence with which objects are viewed was produced under two conditions. In one, S alternately pushed away or pulled toward him a screen that exhibited only a single vertical contour while wearing glaaaes that caused decreases in accommodation and convergence equivalent to 1.5 lens diopters. Here kinesthesis for these arm movements provided the only veridical distance cues, A small, but highly significant, adaptation effect was obtained with a teat in which S, before and after the adaptation period, pointed to the location of a test line in the distance dimension. Corresponding tests consisting in size and in depth estimates did not show an adaptation effect. In the other condition of adaptation, S moved objects by hand toward and away from himself while wearing spectacles that increased accommodation and convergence by the equivalent of 1.5 lens diopters. In addition to the altered oculomotor cues, some veridical visual cues for distance such as are caused by perspective were present. This condition yielded changes in size and depth estimates indicative of an adaptation in visual distance perception and a larger effect of adaptation measured by the pointing test. We concluded that the excess of the adaptation effect measured by pointing over that measured by size estimation represents an adaptation in proprioception, as did the pointing effect produced by our first adaptation condition.     

A HULLIAN CONSTANT AS AN INDEX OF INTELLIGENCE: TWO EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Following Clark Hull, it is widely considered that the asymptote of the learning curve represents motivational factors, but that rate of approach to asymptote ('i') represents associational factors. The suggestion that i may be a measure of intelligence was tested empirically in two studies. An initial exploratory study yielded a positive correlation between i and IQ. A more rigorous replication did not. The results are discussed briefly.     

Grandchildren's perspectives on relationships with grandparents: The influence of gender across generations

The study examines the relation between gender of grandchildren, parents and grandparents and grandchild-grandparent relationships. Subjects were 120 young adult grandchildren (ages 18–23) who provided information on the 375 grandparents they had known. Subjects reported how close they felt to their grandparents, how much they liked them, and what activities they engaged in with them. Strong effects were found for sex of grandparent and sex of parent. Grandchildren had closer relationships with grandmothers, particularly maternal grandmothers, and they tended to prefer maternal grandmothers over other grandparents. Maternal grandmothers seem to make themselves particularly accessible to grandchildren. The results suggest that the gender of the grandparent can be more important than proximity in determining the quality of grandchild-grandparent relationships.An earlier version of this paper was presented in March of 1986 at the annual meeting of the Southwestern Society for Research in Human Development. The authors thanks Richard Wenzlaff for his assistance in the analysis of the data, Billy Hoover for his assistance in collecting and coding the data, and Judith Loftus for her comments on earlier drafts of the paper.     

An exploration of women's expectations of effective male and female leadership

University women (N=188) of varying ages (19–53) and work experience described their behavioral expectations of an effective male and female leader for levels of Consideration, Initiating Structure, Role Assumption, and Production Emphasis. In line with a sex role congruency view, it was hypothesized that an effective female leader would be expected to exhibit higher levels of Consideration behaviors, while an effective male leader would be expected to exhibit more Initiating Structure, Role Assumption, and Production Emphasis behaviors. The results provided only partial support for the sex role congruency hypothesis since an effective female leader was expected to exhibit higher levels of Consideration as well as higher levels of Initiating Structure. No sex differences were detected for Role Assumption or Production Emphasis behaviors. Further, while many similarities were noted among the women in their views of effective leadership, there were also systematic age-related differences among the women in their expectations, particularly with regard to their views of effective female leadership.Portions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Orlando, Florida, March, 1986.     

Psychoanalytically oriented short-term groups for outpatients: Unsettled issues

The psychoanalytic approach to short-term group therapy for outpatients has been less prevalent than other approaches. Unsettled issues associated with this approach concern the feasibility of carrying out psychoanalytic work on an ongoing basis, patient selection, group composition, patient preparation, therapist technique, and cotherapy. Recent literature relevant to a conceptual consideration of these issues is reviewed. A vignette from a recent therapy group is presented as part of a clinical consideration of the issues. In addition, practical suggestions for conducting such groups are provided.This article was derived from a paper presented at the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Canadian Group Psychotherapy Association, October 16, 1986, Mont Tremblant, Canada.     

“Higher” and “lower”: Comparative and categorical interpretations by children

Three-, four-, and five-year-old children's categorical and comparative understanding of high and low were examined in two experiments. Categorical knowledge was assessed by presenting subjects with a single object at varying heights (from 0 to five feet above the ground), and asking if the object was high or low. Comparative understanding of the terms was assessed by showing children two objects at a time and asking which was higher or lower. We observed two patterns of performance in children's categorical treatments: younger children in particular defined disjoint categories for high and low such that they only labelled the extreme heights as high or low, and maintained that middle heights were neither high nor low. Older children defined either-or categories such that all heights were labelled either high or low. We also found that children who defined either-or categories made correct comparative judgments across the entire range of variation whereas children who defined disjoint categories could only judge which of two objects was higher if the objects were not low (at 0 and 1 feet) and which of the objects was lower if the objects were not high (at 4 and 5 feet). The results were interpreted as reflecting a lack of appreciation that the terms are interdefined as negations of each other, and were discussed in terms of the similar semantic-congruity effects found in adults.     

Gender and developmental differences in children's conversations

Extending work on childhood gender differences by J. Block (“Assimilation, Accommodation and the Dynamics of Personality Development,” Child Development, 1982, 53, 281–295) and J. H. Block (“Differential Premises Arising from Differential Socialization of the Sexes: Some Conjunctures,” Child Development, 1983, 54, 1335–1354), the present research investigated assimilative and accommodative discourse devices in the speech of 24 preschool children (12 boys and 12 girls) and 24 middle-childhood youngsters (12 boys and 12 girls) in each of grades 3 and 6. Boys' discourse, regardless of age, contained more accommodative devices. Girls' discourse, regardless of age, contained more assimilative devices. Age effects were apparent; older children, regardless of gender, used more discourse devices of both kinds than younger children.