Brain-behavior relationships in reading acquisition are modulated by socioeconomic factors

Functional neuroimaging may provide insights into the achievement gap in reading skill commonly observed across socioeconomic status (SES). Brain activation during reading tasks is known to be associated with individual differences in children's phonological language skills. By selecting children of equivalent phonological skill, yet diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, we use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that a child's experience, as operationalized by SES, can systematically modulate the relationship between phonological language skills and reading-related brain activity in left fusiform and perisylvian regions. Specifically, at lower socioeconomic levels, individual differences in skill result in large differences in brain activation. In contrast, as SES increases, this relationship between phonological language skill and activation is attenuated. Socioeconomic background factors are thus found to modulate brain-behavior relationships in reading, indicating that cognitive, social, and neurobiological influences on reading development are fundamentally intertwined.     

The symptoms of resource scarcity: judgments of food and finances influence preferences for potential partners

Male preferences for female body weight follow a consistent cross-cultural pattern such that in cultures with scarce resources, heavier women are preferred, whereas in cultures with abundant resources, thinner women are preferred. We offer a social-cognitive account for these findings based on the individual experience of resource scarcity. In four studies (N=1,176), we explored the possibility that this cross-cultural relationship emerges at the individual level; that is, we investigated whether situational feelings of resource scarcity predict personal preferences within a single culture. We operationalized intraindividual resource scarcity through feelings of financial and caloric dissatisfaction. Accordingly, we hypothesized-and found-that men who feel either poor or hungry prefer heavier women than men who feel rich or full. We discuss these findings in terms of how patterns of cross-cultural norms may be evinced at the individual level through an implicit psychological mechanism.     

Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children

Socioeconomic status (SES) is strongly associated with cognitive ability and achievement during childhood and beyond. Little is known about the developmental relationships between SES and specific brain systems or their associated cognitive functions. In this study we assessed neurocognitive functioning of kindergarteners from different socioeconomic backgrounds, using tasks drawn from the cognitive neuroscience literature in order to determine how childhood SES predicts the normal variance in performance across different neurocognitive systems. Five neurocognitive systems were examined: the occipitotemporal/visual cognition system, the parietal/spatial cognition system, the medial temporal/memory system, the left perisylvian/language system, and the prefrontal/executive system. SES was disproportionately associated with the last two, with low SES children performing worse than middle SES children on most measures of these systems. Relations among language, executive function, SES and specific aspects of early childhood experience were explored, revealing intercorrelations and a seemingly predominant role of individual differences in language ability involved in SES associations with executive function.     

Modern prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women: assessing the viability of a measure of modern homonegative attitudes within an Irish context

The authors examined the psychometric properties of the gay and lesbian versions of the Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS-G and MHS-L) in samples of heterosexual Irish university students (Ns=179 and 353). Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the MHS-G and MHS-L were unidimensional and factorially distinct from a well-established measure of old-fashioned homonegativity (Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale [ATLG]). Alpha coefficients for both versions of the MHS were good (range = .81 to .86), with 95% confidence intervals suggesting that unsatisfactory levels of scale score reliability (i.e., alpha values < .70) were relatively implausible. As hypothesized, participants' level of modern homonegativity correlated positively with their levels of old-fashioned and modem racism, patriotism, nationalism, religious fundamentalism, social dominance, and perceived political conservatism. The authors also observed a substantial inverse correlation between modern prejudice toward sexual minorities and support for their human rights. Finally, a series of multiple regression analyses indicated that, despite their interrelatedness, modern and old-fashioned homonegativity, particularly as they pertain to gay men, possess differential predictors. Limitations of the current series of studies and the need to conduct further research on attitudes toward sexual minorities within an Irish context are also discussed.     

Age-related differences in head and trunk coordination during walking

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of ageing on the pattern and structure of head and trunk accelerations during walking. Head and trunk accelerations of young (n=8; mean=23 years, SD=4 years) and elderly (n=8; mean=74 years, SD=3 years) individuals were measured using triaxial accelerometers while performing preferred speed walking. Accelerations were examined using power-spectral analysis and measures of signal smoothness, regularity and coupling. No differences in walking speed or signal regularity were detected between age groups. Compared to the young participants, the elderly had (1) a greater proportion of signal power above 6 Hz for the trunk, (2) a smaller difference in signal smoothness between the trunk and head, (3) less signal smoothness in the mediolateral direction, and (4) a greater degree of directional coupling for the head compared to the trunk. Overall these results suggest that the pattern of head accelerations was relatively unaffected by age, and that both age groups achieved similar levels of head stability despite differences in trunk acceleration characteristics. The manner in which head stability was achieved differed between age groups, with the elderly employing an upper body coordination strategy that enhanced coupling between acceleration directions of the head compared to the trunk. The findings of this study also suggest that an absence of age-related differences in signal complexity at one level of postural system, combined with differences at another level, may provide information about the way in which the motor system prioritises postural control during gait.     

Imagery and psychotic symptoms: a preliminary investigation

Recent cognitive accounts of psychotic symptoms have suggested that processes involved in the maintenance of emotional disorders may also be implicated in the maintenance of hallucinations and delusions, and particularly emphasise the appraisals of such symptoms as important. Imaginal appraisals have been identified in emotional disorders, and many studies have reported spontaneously occurring images in patients with anxiety disorders. Such images appear to be linked to affect, beliefs and memories. This study examined the occurrence of imagery, using a semi-structured interview, in 35 patients who were experiencing hallucinations and/or delusions and receiving cognitive therapy. The majority of patients (74.3%) reported images, and most of these were recurrent and associated with affect, beliefs and memories. Common themes included images about feared catastrophes associated with paranoia, traumatic memories, and images about the perceived source or content of voices. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed and directions for further research considered.     

Infant perceptual and conceptual categorization: the roles of static and dynamic stimulus attributes

Infants' categorization of animals and vehicles based on static vs. dynamic attributes of stimuli was investigated in five experiments (N=158) using a categorization habituation-of-looking paradigm. In Experiment 1, 6-month-olds categorized static color images of animals and vehicles, and in Experiment 2, 6-month-olds categorized dynamic point-light displays showing only motions of the same animals and vehicles. In Experiments 3, 4, and 5, 6- and 9-month-olds were tested in an habituation-transfer paradigm: half of the infants at each age were habituated to static images and tested with dynamic point-light displays, and the other half were habituated to dynamic point-light displays and tested with static images. Six-month-olds did not transfer. Only 9-month-olds who were habituated to dynamic displays showed evidence of category transfer to static images. Together the findings show that 6-month-olds categorize animals and vehicles based on static and dynamic information, and 9-month-olds can transfer dynamic category information to static images. Transfer, static vs. dynamic information, and age effects in infant categorization are discussed.     

Spatial frequency discrimination in schizophrenia

Pathways within the visual system can be distinguished on the basis of selectivity for low or high spatial frequencies. Spatial frequency discrimination was evaluated in 17 medicated male patients with schizophrenia and 19 male control subjects. Subjects were required to discriminate whether pairs of high contrast, sinusoidally modulated gratings were the same or different in spatial frequency. Accuracy performance was compared at high, medium, and low spatial frequencies on tasks matched for control performance. Patients showed a greater performance decrement of 12% on low as compared with 4% on high spatial frequencies. These findings suggest a disturbance of right hemisphere mechanisms involved in spatial perception and attention in schizophrenia.     

The academic achievement of African American students during early adolescence: an examination of multiple risk,promotive, and protective factors

This study examined the effects of multiple risk, promotive, and protective factors on three achievement-related measures (i.e., grade point average, number of absences, and math achievement test scores) for African American 7th-grade students (n = 837). There were 3 main findings. First, adolescents had lower grade point averages, more absences, and lower achievement test scores as their exposure to risk factors increased. Second, different promotive and protective factors emerged as significant contributors depending on the nature of the achievement-related outcome that was being assessed. Third, protective factors were identified whose effects were magnified in the presence of multiple risks. Results were discussed in light of the developmental tasks facing adolescents and the contexts in which youth exposed to multiple risks and their families live.