Unrealistic Optimism: Still a Neglected Trait

Purpose  

Unrealistic optimism is all around us, and it is a well-documented psychological phenomenon. The purpose of this study is to take a critical approach of the main research done in the area and to analyze the important impact that it has in many economic and managerial contexts. We also analyze current trends in terms of entrepreneurship by policy makers.     

Social modulation of learning in rats

It is well known that emotions participate in the regulation of social behaviors and that the emotion displayed by a conspecific influences the behavior of other animals. In its simplest form, empathy can be characterized as the capacity to be affected by and/or share the emotional state of another. However, to date, relatively little is known about the mechanisms by which animals that are not in direct danger share emotions. In the present study, we used a model of between-subject transfer of fear to characterize the social interaction during which fear is transmitted, as well as the behavioral effects of socially transmitted fear. We found that (1) during social interaction with a recently fear-conditioned partner, observers and demonstrators exhibit social exploratory behaviors rather than aggressive behaviors; (2) learning and memory in a shock-motivated shuttle avoidance task are facilitated in rats that underwent a social interaction with a partner that had been fear conditioned; and (3) a brief social interaction with a recently fear-conditioned partner immediately before fear conditioning increases conditioned freezing measured on the next day. The observed effects were not due to a stress-induced increase in pain sensitivity or analgesia. Collectively, these data suggest that a brief social interaction with a cage mate that has undergone an aversive learning experience promotes aversive learning in an otherwise naïve animal. We argue that socially transferred fear is an adaptation that promotes defensive behavior to potentially dangerous situations in the environment.Human empathy can be defined as the ability to experience and share the thoughts and feelings of others (de Waal 2008). Obviously, this is a complex social phenomenon that, until recently, has received much attention from philosophers and psychologists rather than neuroscientists (Decety and Lamm 2006). However, in its simplest form, empathy can be characterized as the capacity to be affected by and/or share the emotional state of another (de Waal 2008). Tuning one''s emotional state to that of another increases the probability of similar behavior, which thereby allows rapid adaptation to environmental challenges (Hatfield et al. 1994). This social adaptation may be particularly important for emotions that signal a potential danger, such as fear. Although one can learn about potentially harmful stimuli by directly experiencing an aversive event, observation or interaction with a conspecific in danger and/or in pain may also provide information about threats in the environment. There is a vast literature on learning about direct danger (Maren 2001) as well as sharing emotions through observation (see, e.g., Church 1959; Langford et al. 2006; Olsson and Phelps 2007). However, relatively little is known about the mechanisms by which animals that are not in a direct danger share emotions.We have recently designed an experimental rat model of between-subject transfer of emotional information (Knapska et al. 2006). In this model, rats are housed in pairs and one member of the pair (the “demonstrator”) is removed and subjected to fear conditioning. After the fear-conditioning episode, the conditioned animal is allowed to interact with its naïve cage mate (the “observer”). We showed that the demonstrator''s fear is socially transferred to the observer, resulting in both rapid increase in exploratory behavior of the observer and a pattern of c-Fos activation in the observer''s amygdala that parallels that of the shocked demonstrators.These results suggest that the social interaction between the demonstrator and observer results in a transfer of information that promotes aversively motivated learning in the observer. However, the nature of the social interaction and how it comes to influence aversively motivated behavior is not known. Therefore, the present study aimed to characterize the behavior of both the demonstrators and observers during their social interaction and further characterize the nature of the influence of socially transmitted fear on aversively motivated learning and memory. We hypothesized that the social interaction between observers and demonstrators would result in a social transfer of fear that would promote learning and memory of both active defensive responses (avoidance) as well as defensive immobility (freezing). To test this hypothesis, we carried out five experiments that examined the nature of the social interaction between shocked demonstrators and observers (Experiment 1), the acquisition and retention of active avoidance (Experiment 2), and conditioned freezing (Experiment 3). Because it is not clear if social transfer effects can be observed among unfamiliar animals and to control for social buffering, we also compared the social transfer of fear in familiar and unfamiliar rats (Experiment 4). To control for the possible influence of different pain sensitivity thresholds in the observers paired with shocked demonstrators, we carried out pain tests (Experiment 5).     

Classroom ecology: relations between seating location, performance, and attendance

Data from 70 classes and 1829 students over a period of 15 years were analyzed. Grade and attendance differences were analyzed for five different seating configurations: by row, by column, the front of the room versus the back of the room, the center of the room versus the perimeter of the room, and the middle of the room versus the sides of the room. Results utilizing numeric percentage grades and attendance percentages indicated students sitting in the more central parts of the class had higher percentage grades and attended classes more frequently than those students sitting in the less central parts of the class. Women attended class more frequently than men, yet there were no sex differences on grades.     

Attention bias for social threat in youth with tic disorders: Links with tic severity and social anxiety

Many individuals with Tourette syndrome and chronic tic disorders (TS/CTDs) report poor social functioning and comorbid social anxiety. Yet limited research has investigated the role of cognitive factors that highlight social threats in youth with TS/CTD, and whether these biases underlie tic severity and co-occurring social anxiety. This study examined whether selective attention to social threat is enhanced young people with TS/CTDs compared to healthy controls, and whether attention biases are associated with tic severity and social anxiety. Twenty seven young people with TS/CTDs and 25 matched control participants completed an experimental measure of attention bias toward/away from threat stimuli. A clinician-rated interview measuring tic severity/impairment (YGTSS Total Score) and questionnaire measures of social anxiety were completed by participants and their parents. Young people with TS/CTD showed an attention bias to social threat words (relative to benign words) compared to controls but no such bias for social threat faces. Attention bias for social threat words was associated with increasing YGTSS Total Score and parent-reported social anxiety in the TS/CTDs group. Mediation analysis revealed a significant indirect path between YGTSS Total Score and social anxiety, via attention to social threat. Tentatively, these associations appeared to be driven by impairment rather than tic severity scores. Preliminary data suggests that youth with TS/CTD have enhanced attention to threat, compared to controls, and this is associated with impairment and social anxiety. Attention to threat could offer a cognitive mechanism connecting impairment and social anxiety, and so be a valuable trans-diagnostic treatment target.     

Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) engage in non-random post-conflict affiliation with third parties: cognitive and functional implications

Animal Cognition - In social mammals, conflict resolution involves the reunion of former opponents (aggressor and victim) after an aggressive event (reconciliation) or post-conflict triadic...     

The efficacy of postdivorce intervention programs for children: A meta-analytical review

Preventive postdivorce interventions aim to help children cope with divorce and promote their adjustment. Nevertheless, questions remain regarding the concrete outcomes of these interventions and the intervention characteristics that influence them. This meta-analysis of 30 studies analyzes the efficacy of postdivorce interventions on children's symptomatology, personal resources, and adaptation to divorce. Likewise, it explores whether the intervention impacts the putative mediators from the family context and whether the characteristics of the studies themselves also influence the results. Using a data set of N = 4344 individuals, 258 effect sizes were calculated. Random effects analyses evidenced the impact of the interventions on specific variables instead of on children's global adjustment. There were no significant effects on children's mental health outcomes, and none of these effects were qualified by the moderators that were examined. Preventive postdivorce interventions had significant effects, specifically on children's divorce adjustment and self-esteem. The study of the moderators found that the interventions were generally homogeneous, and only one of the 20 moderators examined had a significant effect. Based on children's age, the interventions had an impact on family functioning only when they involved younger children, but this result should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample of studies. This meta-analysis provides evidence of the relevance of postdivorce interventions to critical variables as well as information about the role of the intervention characteristics in the effects and makes suggestions for future research on divorce interventions that encompass both practical and empirical developments.     

The fear of confession? High Catholic collective narcissism and low secure identification with Catholics predict increased pedophilia myth acceptance

Over the past 30 years, the Catholic Church has been rocked by a series of child sexual abuse scandals worldwide. Some of the religious officials suggested that the children are partly to blame for being sexually abused by priests. We assumed that such convictions (i.e., pedophilia myth acceptance) should be associated with a defensive commitment to one's religious group, captured by religious collective narcissism. In two studies conducted among Polish participants (Study 1, longitudinal, n = 719; Study 2, cross-sectional, n = 357), we found that pedophilia myth acceptance was positively predicted by Catholic narcissism but negatively by secure identification with Catholics. We additionally demonstrated that the effect of Catholic narcissism on pedophilia myth acceptance was mediated by a siege mentality with respect to the religious in-group. We discuss the role of different types of group commitment in predicting in-group criticism and prejudice against underaged victims of sexual abuse.     

Perceived positive and negative consequences after surviving cancer and their relation to quality of life

Surviving childhood cancer has multiple implications on both physical and psychological domains of the individual. However, its study and possible effects on health‐related quality of life (HRQoL) outcomes of adolescent survivors has been understudied. The objective of this study was twofold; to assess positive and negative cancer‐related consequences (psychosocial and physical) in a sample of adolescent cancer survivors and to explore their relationship with HRQoL outcomes. Forty‐one participants answered two questions about positive and negative consequences in the aftermath of cancer and filled in the KIDSCREEN‐52 self‐reported version. Data were analysed using mixed methods approach. Overall, 87.8% of the studied sample identified positive consequences and 63.4% negative consequences in survivorship. Four positive categories and five negative categories with regard to cancer‐related consequences were found. Changed perspectives in life narratives seem to be the positive consequence more related to HRQoL (physical well‐being, mood & emotions, autonomy, social support & peers), followed by useful life experience (physical well‐being, autonomy, social support & peers). Psychological impact was the most referred negative consequence with a significant detrimental effect on social support and peers HRQoL dimension. Even if the majority of survivors reported benefit finding in the aftermath of cancer, concomitant positive and negative consequences have been found. However, findings only reveal a significant relationship between positive narratives and HRQoL, and negative consequences do not seem to have a significant influence on overall HRQoL in survivorship.     

Who Seeks Job Resources,and Who Avoids Job Demands? The Link Between Dark Personality Traits and Job Crafting

Although job crafting has been linked repeatedly to positive employee and organizational outcomes, its detrimental side has not been well explored. To understand the way dark personality traits affect the type of crafting in which employees engage, this research focuses on two frameworks: the PEN (psychopathy, extraversion, and neuroticism) framework and the Dark Triad (narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism). In Study 1, we collected data on the PEN traits and job crafting from 155 individuals in various occupations. We found that neuroticism was negatively related to seeking structural job resources, whereas psychoticism was negatively related to seeking social job resources. We also found that extraversion was positively related to seeking structural and social job resources and to seeking challenging job demands. In Study 2, we examined how the Dark Triad traits predicted job crafting among police officers (N = 135). The results showed that narcissism was positively related to seeking social job resources and challenges, whereas psychopathy was negatively related to seeking social resources. Age and narcissism were positive predictors of reducing job demands. We conclude that personality plays an important role when choosing how to craft one's job. We discuss the practical implications of these findings.     

Premarital Sexual Debut in Emerging Adults of South Asian Descent: The Role of Parental Sexual Socialization and Sexual Attitudes

Ethnicity is an important factor in premarital sexual debut as norms regarding appropriate sexual conduct outside of marriage vary considerably across cultures. Emerging adults of South Asian descent living in Western societies are an important demographic group, yet little is known about the factors that contribute to variations in their premarital sexual debut. The goal of this study was to investigate the contributions of parental sexual socialization and attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors to premarital sexual debut in emerging adults of South Asian descent. University students of South Asian descent (N = 87) aged 18–24 completed a questionnaire containing measures of parental attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors, their own attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors, and experience with oral sex and intercourse. Mediation analyses showed that perceptions of mothers’ as more permissive toward premarital sexual behaviors was associated with respondents reporting more permissive attitudes toward premarital sexual behaviors, which in turn was associated with a greater likelihood of having engaged in oral sex and intercourse. No significant effect was found for fathers. These findings suggest that parental sexual socialization may influence emerging adults of South Asian descent’s decision to engage in premarital sexual behaviors through the process of sexual attitudes formation.