Lexical restructuring in the absence of literacy

Vocabulary growth was suggested to prompt the implementation of increasingly finer-grained lexical representations of spoken words in children (e.g., [Metsala, J. L., & Walley, A. C. (1998). Spoken vocabulary growth and the segmental restructuring of lexical representations: precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability. In J. L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 89-120). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.]). Although literacy was not explicitly mentioned in this lexical restructuring hypothesis, the process of learning to read and spell might also have a significant impact on the specification of lexical representations (e.g., [Carroll, J. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2001). The effects of global similarity between stimuli on children’s judgments of rime and alliteration. Applied Psycholinguistics, 22, 327-342.]; [Goswami, U. (2000). Phonological representations, reading development and dyslexia: Towards a cross-linguistic theoretical framework. Dyslexia, 6, 133-151.]). This is what we checked in the present study. We manipulated word frequency and neighborhood density in a gating task (Experiment 1) and a word-identification-in-noise task (Experiment 2) presented to Portuguese literate and illiterate adults. Ex-illiterates were also tested in Experiment 2 in order to disentangle the effects of vocabulary size and literacy. There was an interaction between word frequency and neighborhood density, which was similar in the three groups. These did not differ even for the words that are supposed to undergo lexical restructuring the latest (low frequency words from sparse neighborhoods). Thus, segmental lexical representations seem to develop independently of literacy. While segmental restructuring is not affected by literacy, it constrains the development of phoneme awareness as shown by the fact that, in Experiment 3, neighborhood density modulated the phoneme deletion performance of both illiterates and ex-illiterates.     

The role of attention in the formation of auditory streams

There is controversy over whether stream segregation is an attention-dependent process. Part of the argument is related to the initial formation of auditory streams. It has been suggested that attention is needed only to form the streams, but not to maintain them once they have been segregated. The question of whether covert attention at the beginning of a to-be-ignored set of sounds will be enough to initiate the segregation process remains open. Here, we investigate this question by (1) using a methodology that does not require the participant to make an overt response to assess how the unattended sounds are organized and (2) structuring the test sound sequence to account for the covert attention explanation. The results of four experiments provide evidence to support the view that attention is not always required for the formation of auditory streams.     

Perceptual visual skills in young highly skilled basketball players

A simple method was designed to evaluate visual abilities such as disance visual acuity, binocular horizontal visual field, simple and choice visual reaction times, and stereoscopic vision in skilled 11- to 13-yr.-old basketball players participating in a 15-day summer training camp. On a test battery, visual abilities were monitored in 473 players of the Spanish Basketball Federation over a 5-yr. period. The players showed outstanding scores on distance visual acuity and stereoscopic vision, and good visual reaction times and horizontal visual fields. When scores were compared by sex and age, significant differences on certain visual measures were observed. Many layers showed crossed eye-hand dominance. Visual screening programs may help promote visual health among junior basketball players and could be used for performance training.     

Effect of manipulating positive and negative feedback on goal orientations, perceived motivational climate, satisfaction, task choice, perception of ability, and attitude toward physical education lessons

This study examined the effect of different types of feedback on goal orientation, perception of motivational climate, satisfaction, and boredom in physical education (PE) classes, pupils' preferences for challenging versus easy tasks, pupils' attitudes towards PE lessons, and perception of gymnastic ability. 95 subjects in three treatment conditions (positive feedback, negative feedback, and both feedback types) participated in 14 lessons and completed pre- and postintervention measures. Results showed that subjects in the positive feedback group had significantly higher scores on learning-oriented motivational climate and enjoyment than the subjects of the negative feedback group. The negative feedback group reported higher scores on performance-oriented motivational climate than the positive feedback group. Results also showed that subjects in the group receiving both types of feedback had lower scores on learning-oriented motivational climate, higher scores on enjoyment than the negative feedback group, and lower scores on boredom than the positive feedback group. The effects of feedback on physical education students' motivation are discussed.     

Precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence in athletes with disability

This study examined the precompetition temporal patterning of competitive anxiety components in 42 athletes with disability who participated at the national level and at the national trials for the Paralympic Games in a variety of sports. All subjects completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 which measures intensity and direction of the competitive anxiety response on three occasions before competition (1 wk., 2 hr., and 20 min.). Analysis suggested that for cognitive and somatic dimensions athletes with disabilities show a similar precompetition anxiety response to athletes without disability. However, there appear to be some differences, particularly in the intensity of self-confidence, as athletes with disability reported a reduction of self-confidence just prior to competition.     

Expert-novice differences in cognitive and execution skills during tennis competition

This study deals with decision and execution behavior of tennis players during competition. The study is based on the expert-novice paradigm and aims to identify differences between both groups in the decision-making and execution variables in serve and shot actions in tennis. Six expert players (elite Spanish tennis players) and six novice players (grade school tennis players) took part in this study. To carry out this study, the observation protocol defined by McPherson and Thomas in 1989, in which control, decision-making and execution variables were included, was used, where it was applied to the performance of the tennis player in a real match situation. In the analysis, significant differences between experts and novices in decision-making and execution variables are found wherein it can be observed that experts display a greater ability to make the appropriate decisions, selecting the most tactical responses to put pressure on the opponent. Expert tennis players were also able to carry out forceful executions to their opponent with greater efficiency, making the opponent's response to a large extent more difficult. These findings are in accordance with those of McPherson and colleagues.     

Sensitivity of the 16 PF Motivational Distortion Scale to response bias

The shortened versions of the 16 PF (Forms C or D) were given to 227 college students (who took Form D twice), 33 prisoners (who took Forms C and D), and 95 substance abusers (who took Form C twice). All were asked to answer honestly, then retake these tests to appear in a better light. Significant differences in Motivational Distortion scores were found between test and retest in each group.     

The Elusive Nature of Executive Functions: A Review of our Current Understanding

Executive functions include abilities of goal formation, planning, carrying out goal-directed plans, and effective performance. This article aims at reviewing some of the current knowledge surrounding executive functioning and presenting the contrasting views regarding this concept. The neural substrates of the executive system are examined as well as the evolution of executive functioning, from development to decline. There is clear evidence of the vulnerability of executive functions to the effects of age over lifespan. The first executive function to emerge in children is the ability to inhibit overlearned behavior and the last to appear is verbal fluency. Inhibition of irrelevant information seems to decline earlier than set shifting and verbal fluency during senescence. The sequential progression and decline of these functions has been paralleled with the anatomical changes of the frontal lobe and its connections with other brain areas. Generalization of the results presented here are limited due to methodological differences across studies. Analysis of these differences is presented and suggestions for future research are offered.     

Multiple Depression

The subject of this paper is the problematisation of depression in today's mental health care. It is based on a study of the professional discussion on depression in Finland from the mid-1980s to the 1990s. The ways in which Finnish mental health experts define the object of depression treatment bring out an ambivalence that stems from the discrepancy between two parallel but incongruent notions of what depression is: the psychopharmacological and the psychotherapeutic. The analysis of the discussion demonstrates how clinical and practical rationales of today's mental health care are formed in the space between the two poles. Two tendencies of these rationales are also pointed out: first, the DSM paradigm of depressive illness inclines to become problematic and to dissolve in the actual practices. Second, they insinuate emphasis on antidepressant medication and overall neuropsychiatric approach in the treatment of depressive disorders, although in an ambivalent way.     

The Cultural Adaptation of the Youth Quality of Life Instrument-Research Version for Latino Children and Adolescents

We reviewed the Spanish translation of the Youth Quality of Life Instrument-Research Version (YQOL-R) and culturally adapted the measure with Puerto Rican and Mexican American children and adolescents. The YQOL-R is a self-reported measure that includes four domains: Sense of Self, Social Relationships, Environment, and General Quality of Life. A total of 10 focus groups were conducted with children aged 9 to 11, adolescents aged 12 to 17, their parents, and mental health providers. Five focus groups were conducted in San Diego, California and five in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Eligible participants were recruited from children’s outpatient psychiatry clinics. We followed an iterative and recursive process in reviewing changes and modifications to the instrument using a bilingual committee and a Multi National Bilingual Committee. Greater semantic, content, and technical equivalence of the Spanish and English versions for the YQOL-R was achieved for the two largest U.S. Latino subgroups: Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans. The cultural adaptation process revealed several important issues regarding the measurement of quality of life in different age groups. Additional items for school, relationships (both family and friends) and spare time suggested the need for a future children’s version of the instrument. For the adolescents, additional items were suggested in the areas of sexuality, intergenerational conflict and acculturative stress.