Gendered Ways to Motivation Gains in Groups

Recent studies have demonstrated motivation gains of low performing group members even beyond the level of an individual work baseline (e.g., Weber and Hertel, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93:973–993, 2007). We expected that the underlying mechanisms of these motivation gains, i.e., social indispensability and social competition, are moderated by individuals’ gender. Moreover, these gender effects were assumed to be moderated by partner anonymity. Predictions were tested with mostly undergraduate German students (N?=?213) working in same-gender groups in a computer-supported environment. Results revealed that motivation gains due to social indispensability were more likely for women, whereas motivation gains due to social competition were more likely for men. Furthermore, women compared to men showed higher motivation gains in anonymous conditions compared to conditions with an acquainted partner.     

Critrial noise effects on rule-based category learning: The impact of delayed feedback

Variability in the representation of the decision criterion is assumed in many category-learning models, yet few studies have directly examined its impact. On each trial, criterial noise should result in drift in the criterion and will negatively impact categorization accuracy, particularly in rule-based categorization tasks, where learning depends on the maintenance and manipulation of decision criteria. In three experiments, we tested this hypothesis and examined the impact of working memory on slowing the drift rate. In Experiment 1, we examined the effect of drift by inserting a 5-sec delay between the categorization response and the delivery of corrective feedback, and working memory demand was manipulated by varying the number of decision criteria to be learned. Delayed feedback adversely affected performance, but only when working memory demand was high. In Experiment 2, we built on a classic finding in the absolute identification literature and demonstrated that distributing the criteria across multiple dimensions decreases the impact of drift during the delay. In Experiment 3, we confirmed that the effect of drift during the delay is moderated by working memory. These results provide important insights into the interplay between criterial noise and working memory, as well as providing important constraints for models of rule-based category learning.     

The welcome baby program: A community-based volunteer prevention model of caring,sharing, and support for new parents

Primary prevention is one of the most important components of any community child abuse and neglect program. Welcome Baby is a community-based, volunteer primary prevention program that offers caring, sharing, and support to parents of newborns through hospital visitation and follow-up contacts during the adjustment period that surrounds the birth of a baby. Program goals include personal support for the new mother, prevention of child abuse and neglect by providing support and information for all parents, reinforcement of strengths and support for quality parenting, improving emotional preparation for parenthood, and early identification and intervention for families with the potential for maltreatment. Program rationale and conclusions agree with research findings that early and consistent support and intervention with high-risk families improve the quality of parent-child interaction and significantly reduce the risk of maltreatment. This article outlines the basic philosophy, goals, and operations of this community prevention program.     

The relationship between temperament and personality: An exploratory study

Although the terms temperament and personality are often used interchangeably in the literature and clearly are conceptually related, there is little empirical data to illuminate their relationship. In this exploratory study we measured temperament (using the Dimensions of Temperament Survey), and personality (using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire), in young adolescents and in adults. Some age and sex differences in relationships between the measures and their correlations were found. The temperament dimension of adaptability was clearly related to Eysenck's Extraversion factor and reactivity to Neuroticism in females. More substantial relationships emerged in the adult sample than in the adolescent group, Our data, combined with that of a 1984 Australian study using different techniques, provides substantial support for measurable overlap between some dimensions of temperament derived largely from the developmental literature, and Eysenck's personality theory.     

The influence of maternal employment on gender role attitudes of men and women

The effects of maternal employment on young adults' gender role attitudes were assessed. A random sample of 111 males and 131 females was surveyed [179 Whites (74.0%), 35 Blacks (14.5%), and 28 others (typically Asian-Americans, 11.5%)]. Results varied depending on which gender role attitudes were being examined. With respect to approval of mother working outside the home, only the respondent's age when his or her mother began working was significant. However, this relationship was not found when assessing attitudes about the separate spheres ideology. Thus, it appears that attitudes toward women working depend on whether the respondent's mother worked, whereas beliefs about adult male—female equality do not appear to be as closely related to childhood experiences. Mothers' occupations were unrelated to all of the attitudes examined, as were her children's perceptions of how satisfied she was with her primary work role (employed or nonemployed). Finally, the only significant predictors of gender role attitudes to be discovered were the sex of respondent and attendance at religious services. Females expressed more egalitarian gender role attitudes, and those who reported frequent attendance at religious services were more likely to endorse traditional gender roles.This article was part of a master's thesis conducted at the University of Virginia by the first author.We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Paul W. Kingston in proposal formulation and survey construction, Lance C. Bloom in data collection, and the helpful comments made by the anonymous reviewers ofSex Roles.     

ON THE DANGERS OF AVERAGING ACROSS SUBJECTS WHEN USING MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OR THE SIMILARITY-CHOICE MODEL

Abstract— When ratings of judged similarity or frequencies of stimulus identification are averaged across subjects, the psychological structure of the data is fundamentally changed. Regardless of the structure of the individual-subject data, the averaged similarity data will likely be well fit by a standard multidimensional scaling model, and the averaged identification data will likely be well fit by the similarity-choice model. In fact, both models often provide excellent fits to averaged data, even if they fail to fit the data of each individual subject. Thus, a good fit of either model to averaged data cannot be taken as evidence that the model describes the psychological structure that characterizes individual subjects. We hypothesize that these effects are due to the increased symmetry that is a mathematical consequence of the averaging operation.     

Sex-typed play of toddlers in a day care center

By the age of 3, boys prefer gross motor and vehicle play and girls prefer doll and housekeeping play. The present study was an attempt to define the age at which these sex differences first appear by observing the play behavior of one- and two-year-olds in a day care center. We observed use of stereotyped toys in children 15 to 35 months old during free play. Boys played more with the masculine toys than with either of the other types, whereas girls showed almost equal use of all three types. Choice of sex-typed toys was more prevalent among older boys, while older girls showed less play with feminine toys than younger girls.     

Modeling,praising, and collaborating: Effects of adult behavior on children of the same sex and opposite sex

The study assessed children's responsiveness to adults of both sexes as a function of the adults behavior. Paris of male and female adults administered games to 96 children. Each child was assigned to either the modeling, praise, or collaboration condition. Depending on the condition, each adult, in turn, (a) modeled selection of a specific set of play materials, (b) praised the child for playing with the materials, or (c) collaborated with the child while they played together with the materials. Results showed a greater responsiveness to the same-sex adult in the collaboration condition and to the cross-sex adult in the praise condition, as measured by the time spent playing with the materials previously associated with each adult and by comments to each adult. In the modeling condition, there was a nonsignificant same-sex effect for children's actual responsiveness, but a significant same-sex effect for self-reported responsiveness. Sex-typing scores, which were independently assessed, were related to same-sex responsiveness in the collaboration condition only. Different, and perhaps complementary, influences of same-sex and cross-sex adults on children's sex-typed preferences are considered.     

Women managers and fear of success: A study in the field

Reported here is the first stage of a study designed to test Matina Horner's fear of success (FOS) hypothesis in the field of management. A matched sample of 18 male and 18 female executives wrote stories for TAT-type verbal cues concerned with a successful management career. No significant differences were indicated between sexes in negative imagery, though both expressed anxiety toward success. Implications for Horner's hypothesis are discussed with respect to changing attitudes and expectations of men and women for each other and their relationships in business. The report concludes that understanding of FOS requires research on a broader representation of men and women actually involved in the pursuit of careers via ongoing studies in touch with rapidly changing times.This paper was presented, in part, at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting in Kansas City, Missouri, August 12, 1976.Special acknowledgment is made to Estelle D. Klinger, Jean M. Moore, Nancy L. Spear, Susan Vandenburg, and Rene Jackson-White for the ideas, time, and assistance they contributed to the research reported here.