Aristotle on Universal Quantification: A Study from the Point of View of Game Semantics

In this paper we provide an interpretation of Aristotle's rule for the universal quantifier in Topics Θ 157^a34–37 and 160^b1–6 in terms of Paul Lorenzen's dialogical logic. This is meant as a contribution to the rehabilitation of the role of dialectic within the Organon. After a review of earlier views of Aristotle on quantification, we argue that this rule is related to the dictum de omni in Prior Analytics A 24^b28–29. This would be an indication of the dictum’s origin in the context of dialectical games. One consequence of our approach is a novel explanation of the doctrine of the existential import of the quantifiers in dialectical terms. After a brief survey of Lorenzen's dialogical logic, we offer a set of rules for dialectical games based on previous work by Castelnérac and Marion, to which we add here the rule for the universal quantifier, as interpreted in terms of its counterpart in dialogical logic. We then give textual evidence of the use of that rule in Plato's dialogues, thus showing that Aristotle only made explicit a rule already implicit in practice, while providing a new interpretation of ‘epagogic’ arguments. Finally, we show how a proper understanding of that rule involves further rules concerning counterexamples and delaying tactics, stressing again the parallels with dialogical logic.     

Auditory orienting of attention: Effects of cues and verbal workload with children and adults

The use of tone cues has an improving effect on the auditory orienting of attention for children as for adults. Verbal cues, on the contrary, do not seem to orient attention as efficiently before the age of 9 years. However, several studies have reported inconsistent effects of orienting attention on ear asymmetries. Multiple factors are questioned, such as the role of verbal workload. Indeed, the semantic nature of the dichotic pairs and their load of processing may explain orienting of attention performance. Thus, by controlling for the role of verbal workload, the present experiment aimed to evaluate the development of capacities for the auditory orienting of attention. Right-handed, 6- to 12-year-olds and adults were recruited to complete either a tone cue or a verbal cue dichotic listening task in the identification of familiar words or nonsense words. A factorial design analysis of variance showed a significant right-ear advantage for all the participants and for all the types of stimuli. A major developmental effect was observed in which verbal cues played an important role: they allowed the 6- to 8-year-olds to improve their performance of identification in the left ear. These effects were taken as evidence of the implication of top-down processes in cognitive flexibility across development.     

Précis of Evolution in Four Dimensions

In his theory of evolution, Darwin recognized that the conditions of life play a role in the generation of hereditary variations, as well as in their selection. However, as evolutionary theory was developed further, heredity became identified with genetics, and variation was seen in terms of combinations of randomly generated gene mutations. We argue that this view is now changing, because it is clear that a notion of hereditary variation that is based solely on randomly varying genes that are unaffected by developmental conditions is an inadequate basis for evolutionary theories. Such a view not only fails to provide satisfying explanations of many evolutionary phenomena, it also makes assumptions that are not consistent with the data that are emerging from disciplines ranging from molecular biology to cultural studies. These data show that the genome is far more responsive to the environment than previously thought, and that not all transmissible variation is underlain by genetic differences. In Evolution in Four Dimensions (2005) we identify four types of inheritance (genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbol-based), each of which can provide variations on which natural selection will act. Some of these variations arise in response to developmental conditions, so there are Lamarckian aspects to evolution. We argue that a better insight into evolutionary processes will result from recognizing that transmitted variations that are not based on DNA differences have played a role. This is particularly true for understanding the evolution of human behavior, where all four dimensions of heredity have been important.     

The Influence of Multicultural Training on Perceived Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Implicit Racial Prejudice

This study examined the impact of multicultural training on multicultural counseling competencies and implicit racial prejudice. Results of a multilevel modeling analysis showed that only the multicultural counseling course was related to a decrease in implicit racial prejudice and an increase in cultural self‐awareness. Implications for multicultural training are discussed. Este estudio examinó el impacto de la formación multicultural en las competencias en consejería multicultural y el prejuicio racial implícito. Los resultados de un análisis de modelo a varios niveles mostraron que solo el curso en consejería multicultural estaba implicado en un descenso del prejuicio racial implícito y un aumento de la autoconciencia cultural. Se discuten las implicaciones para la formación multicultural.     

The Role of Experiencing in Psychotherapy: Attending to the “Bodily Felt Sense” of a Problem Makes Any Orientation More Effective

Focusing-Oriented Theory defines a new aspect of client experiencing – the bodily felt sense of a situation or problem. The felt sense is vague at first, sensed directly but not yet in explicit words or images. It is neither drowning in strong emotions nor is it just thinking. The chapter shows examples of how to help a client find this level and how to respond to it. When the felt sense is responded to little steps inwardly arise directly from the client's own process. It is proposed that the Philosophy of the Implicit which underlies this model, can unify our different orientations by showing us how to use any theory experientially. The client is always invited to check any therapist suggested move for resonance in the body and a sense of life being carried forward.     

How emotional auditory stimuli modulate time perception

Emotional and neutral sounds rated for valence and arousal were used to investigate the influence of emotions on timing in reproduction and verbal estimation tasks with durations from 2 s to 6 s. Results revealed an effect of emotion on temporal judgment, with emotional stimuli judged to be longer than neutral ones for a similar arousal level. Within scalar expectancy theory (J. Gibbon, R. Church, & W. Meck, 1984), this suggests that emotion-induced activation generates an increase in pacemaker rate, leading to a longer perceived duration. A further exploration of self-assessed emotional dimensions showed an effect of valence and arousal. Negative sounds were judged to be longer than positive ones, indicating that negative stimuli generate a greater increase of activation. High-arousing stimuli were perceived to be shorter than low-arousing ones. Consistent with attentional models of timing, this seems to reflect a decrease of attention devoted to time, leading to a shorter perceived duration. These effects, robust across the 2 tasks, are limited to short intervals and overall suggest that both activation and attentional processes modulate the timing of emotional events.     

The discrimination of discrete and continuous amounts in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus)

A wealth of research in infants and animals demonstrates discrimination of quantities, in some cases nonverbal numerical perception, and even elementary calculation capacities. We investigated the ability of three African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) to select the largest amount of food between two sets, either discrete food items (experiment 1) or as volume of a food substance (experiment 2). The two amounts were presented simultaneously and were visible at the time of choice. Parrots were tested several times for all possible combinations between 1 and 5 seeds or 0.2 and 1 ml of food substance. In both conditions, subjects performed above chance for almost all combinations. Accuracy was negatively correlated with the ratio, that is performance improved with greater differences between amounts. Therefore, these results with both individual items and volume discrimination suggest that parrots use an analogue of magnitude, rather than object-file mechanisms to quantify items and substances.     

Leadership Image-Building: After Clinton and Watergate

Leadership images are built collectively by leaders and their relevantconstituencies—elected officials, the news media, and the public. The process of buildingleadership image rests on prior expectations about the leader, policy outputs, the course ofevents, and the disposition of political resources. In building images of leadership, each of thethree constituencies puts more weight on some aspects of image-building than on others: Thepublic sees the president primarily in terms of his previous behavior, the media view thepresident through the lens of immediate events, and other elected officials focus on politicalresources. One of the president's most important resources is his public image. It can helphim to maintain the loyalty of other officials, which in turn contributes to balanced newscoverage, even in times of crisis. President Clinton was able to preserve his public image throughthe impeachment debacle in large part because of low public expectations about his personalmoral behavior and satisfaction with his economic leadership. Conversely, President Nixon wasforced to resign because of high public expectations about his personal probity anddisappointment with his management of the economy.