Dogmatism, field dependence, and perception of demand characteristics in a verbal operant conditioning experiment

Using a 2 × 2 analysis of variance design, effects of dogmatism and field dependence on subjects' awareness of demand characteristics in a verbal operant conditioning experiment were investigated. From 103 introductory psychology students who participated in a replication of an earlier verbal conditioning experiment, 92 were randomly selected for final study. It was found that only subjects aware of the purpose of the conditioning study appeared to “condition”. Subject awareness was assessed by a series of converging questions which were independently content analyzed by two judges and coded to yield a total awareness score. Based on earlier research it was expected that dogmatism and field dependence would interact to affect levels of awareness. The two-way interaction was statistically significant (p < .05) as predicted. The results were discussed in terms of speculations regarding the modes of perceptual functioning involved in perceiving demand cues.     

Hemispheric differences for semantically and phonologically primed nouns: A tachistoscopic study in normals

Normal individuals performed two matching tasks. In one task, semantic processing, synonyms had to be recognized. Half the stimuli were picturable and half were nonpicturable nouns. In this task, recognition of picturable synonyms was found to have hemifield symmetry, whereas recognition of nonpicturable synonyms yielded a left-hemisphere superiority, indicating that semantic matching itself did not reveal equal performance of both hemispheres. It is concluded that picturable synonyms might be recognized either by processes of visual imagery, which pertain to right-hemisphere function, or by their phonological or phonic features, which are processed by the left hemisphere. The other task, shown in previous research to exhibit a left-hemisphere superiority, was to decide if two nouns (homophones) were equally pronounced. Here a distinct left-hemisphere advantage was revealed.     

Modeling on microcomputers

The instructional power of experimental models was recognized by the significant effort directed toward the development of EXPER SIM at several institutions. Owing to a number of factors, interest in these tools appeared to wane. The price/performance characteristics of some new microcomputers suggested that a rekindling of interest in the use of modeling as an inquiry/problem solving tool could possibly be achieved if the large timesharing versions could be successfully migrated to one or more popular micros. We have partially achieved these objectives, having both transported EXPER SIM to the LSI-11 computer and developed, tested, documented, and evaluated many new models in sensory, personality, and social psychology and psychobiology. In addition, we have begun devising techniques to migrate a version to the Apple II and III microcomputers.     

Segregation of cognitive and motor aspects of visual function using induced motion

Targets were displaced to cancel an apparent displacement induced by a step motion of a background or were held stationary while appearing to jump in an induced displacement. Target and background were then extinguished, and the subject pointed to the target’s last position. When the target had appeared to move but did not, background position did not significantly affect pointing; when the target had moved but appeared to remain stationary (displacement canceled by opposite induced displacement), pointing depended upon the target’s egocentric position. A similar result was obtained with sinusoidal motion. In terms of a two visual-systems hypothesis, the motor system uses more veridical spatial information and is less affected by relative changes in two retinal signals than is the cognitive system.     

Age-related differences in clustering: A new approach

The present study attempted to determine why children under 8 years of age show categorical clustering in free recall above chance expectations, but such organization does not correlate with recall. Six-year-old children and adults were tested for their memory for 24 pictures of categorizable items. Several new measures of organization such as the proportion of items recalled in category strings and number of strings of each length were evaluated. It was found that children's output is characterized by strings of only two intracategory items and many isolates which does not contribute to recall. Adults produced longer strings from more categories which enhanced recall. In addition, different characteristics of output organization predicted recall for adults and children.     

Semantic congruity and lexical marking in symbolic comparisons: An expectancy hypothesis

Lexical marking and semantic congruity effects were investigated in four symbolic size comparison experiments. Predictions followed from an expectancy hypothesis suggested by results of recent comparative judgment studies. According to the present position, lexical marking and semantic congruity should be mutually exclusive effects in such tasks, and the demonstration of either dependent upon the order in which the stimuli and the comparative term are evaluated. When the comparative precedes the stimuli, an expectancy is created whereby the subject is more likely to be prepared for, say, large items following the comparative “larger” and small items following the comparative “smaller.” In addition, the usual advantage of unmarked as compared to marked comparisons should be offset by the initial processing of the comparative. As predicted, the comparative-stimulus presentation order produced a significant semantic congruity effect and no effect of lexical marking in Experiment 1. Conversely, when stimuli precede the comparative, or are presented simultaneously with it, no expectancy should be created, as the items are immediately available to the subject, and the semantic congruity effect should not be obtained. Upon presentation of the comparative, however, unmarked comparisons should be easier than marked comparisons. Experiments 2 and 4 confirmed these expectations, as significant lexical marking effects were obtained and significant congruity effects were not. These findings are contrary to predictions derived from a semantic coding interpretation of the symbolic comparison process.     

Formation of food aversions in cancer patients receiving repeated infusions of chemotherapy

Patients receiving emetogenic chemotherapy for cancer have been found to develop aversions to normal dietary items consumed in close temporal relation to treatment administrations. These aversions are presumed to develop via conditioning processes as demonstrated in experimental studies of food aversion learning. The present study used a prospective, longitudinal design to evaluate the possible role of conditioning in the formation of aversions to normal dietary items in women receiving adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer. Patients were monitored for the development of aversions to foods and beverages consumed in the 24 hr periods before and after each of eight consecutive chemotherapy infusions beginning with the initial infusion. Data on the prevalence, course, and prediction of aversions to normal dietary items are reported. These results pointed to similarities and differences between aversions formed to normal dietary items during chemotherapy treatment and aversions formed to taste stimuli during experimental conditioning studies. In addition to their theoretical significance, results also suggest possible strategies for preventing the clinical problem of aversions to normal dietary items in chemotherapy patients.     

Pharmacological and Behavioral Strategies for Smoking Cessation

After over two decades of intensive research, a variety of smoking cessation strategies, both behavioral and pharmacotherapeutic, have been developed and clinically validated. In this review, pharmacological products available for smoking cessation are profiled and examined for efficacy. Results of a recent comprehensive review and meta-analysis by the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research on the effects of behavior therapy on smoking cessation are also discussed. Further, meta-analyses and studies exploring the important interaction between pharmacological and behavioral therapies are considered. Applications of the growing wealth of smoking cessation strategies are discussed with respect to the needs of some special subpopulations of smokers including highly nicotine-dependent smokers and smokers with comorbid psychiatric diagnoses.