Cognition in music

A cognitive/constructive view of music is put forth that diverges from traditional conceptions of music (e.g., music as sound; music as behavior; music as communication). The present view attempts to be compatible with the evidence of historic style changes that have occurred in the notated repertory of Western music. Two levels of cognitive processing are proposed: processes on the level of particular styles (germane to a certain period, culture, or community) and processes that are generic, universal, or cross-stylistic. Twelve such generic processes are described in detail. Several problems in the research stemming from earlier definitions of music are explored. In particular, attention is given to the artifacts of theoretical analysis (e.g., scales, chords, and discrete pitches) and their influence on music-psychological research.     

Reinforcement effects on intrinsic interest: A classroom analog

The potential undermining effects of a reinforcement program were examined in two studies with kindergarten-first grade children. The procedures were designed to provide an analog to typical classroom incentive programs. In one study, the subjects' initial interest in the target activity (coloring) was low, whereas in the other study it was reasonably high. In neither case was an undermining effect evident in follow-up observations.     

An automated eye movement recording system for use with human infants

An infrared corneal reflection eye movement system modified for work with human infants is described. The system generates on-line digital information on eye position at a sampling rate that allows examination of the temporal and spatial characteristics of fixations and eye move-ments. An algorithm for defining fixation and eye movement episodes is described.     

Secret ambitions and public performances: The effects of anonymity on reward allocations made by men and women

The degree of equality or equity in reward allocations made by men and women is explored in three studies. Study 1 was a classroom survey which was administered after the members had completed a series of team assignments. When asked to indicate anonymously whether they would share some points with team members who had earned fewer, the men more often said yes and the women no, contradicting the patterns found in much of the literature. Studies 2 and 3 examined the hypothesis that under public conditions men and women would behave as tradition and the previous literature suggest, allocating rewards equitably and equally, respectively. In private, however, they would reverse themselves, each preferring the otherwise forbidden option. The results confirmed the prediction: when anticipating disclosure of their decisions, men chose to divide credits equitably and women equally between themselves and a less deserving partner, but when assured of anonymity, men chose more equal and women more equitable allocations. The results are discussed in light of both childhood socialization and adult constraints on sex role performances.     

Attention as a predictor of learning in infants

A total of 240 fourteen-week-olds were rewarded with a pattern of lights and tones for kicking. The reward display interrupted a background of random alternation between two lights and tones. In experiment 1, attention to this background stimulus during a 1-min baseline was assessed using the number of fixations of alternating lights. During 6 min of reward, high-attention subjects showed significantly greater changes in kicking rate from baseline than low-attention subjects. In experiment 2, the proportion of subjects with low attention ratings increased dramatically during an extended 5-min baseline period, and those subjects with low attention ratings at the end of baseline did not show an increase in kicking from baseline to the reward phase, while high-attention subjects did show evidence of learning. Thus, an objective measure of attention, empirically separate from the dependent learning measure, provided a significant prediction of the effectiveness of subsequent reinforcement, and could be manipulated simply by extending the baseline by as little as 4 min.     

Studies involving fathers: Subject refusal, attrition and sampling bias

The reported rates of subject refusal and attrition are reviewed in those studies where data were collected directly from fathers. Only 34 per cent of such studies report on subject refusal rates and 36 per cent on attrition rates. Few studies comment on or give information that would allow an assessment to be made of sampling bias arising from subject refusal and attrition. Nevertheless, studies reporting subject refusal and attrition suggest that fathers are no more difficult to recruit than mothers and that a variety of factors, individually and in combination, may have some impact on recruitment. These include the type of commitment required, the techniques of recruitment used and whether studies are hospital, home or laboratory based. However, if biases due to subject refusal and attrition are to be identified and avoided, studies need to be more open in providing information about the characteristics of refusing and participating subjects. To encourage this, some new data are presented, suggesting a number of trends: (1) extended personal contacts with potential subjects may minimize subject refusal and attrition; (2) attrition may be somewhat higher in middle-class families and families with sons.     

Le stress des mères monoparentales en relation avec l'agressivité de l'enfant d'âge préscolaire

Dans cette étude, nous avons décrit la relation existante entre le stress parental des mères vivant avec ou sans conjoint et le niveau d'agressivité de l'enfant vis-à-vis de ses pairs. De plus, nous avons observé les comportements des mères en situation de jeu avec leur enfant. Notre échantillon se compose de 32 mères monoparentales et de 43 mères biparentales ayant des enfants de trois ou quatre ans évalués au QECP comme étant agressifs (n = 47) et non-agressifs (n = 28). Nos résultats démontrent: (1) le niveau de stress parental est similaire pour les mères monoparentales et biparentales, sauf si l'enfant est agressif; (2) en contrôlant statistiquement le revenu financier, il existe un lien très clair entre le stress des mères monoparentales et l'agressivité de l'enfant en garderie; (3) le niveau de scolarisation de la mère est la variable la plus reliée au stress maternel; (4) l'agressivité de l'enfant est reliée au faible revenu financier des mères; plus les mères sont pauvres, plus l'enfant est agressif; (5) en situation de jeu avec l'enfant, les mères monoparentales sont plus contrôlantes et moins positives que les mères biparentales, et le négativisme de l'enfant augmente avec le niveau de stress de la mère.     

The use of structural equation modeling in generative research: Toward the design of a preventive intervention for bereaved children

Describes a generative study of processes which may lead to symptomatology in children who have experienced the death of a parent. Based on existing literature, four putative mediating variables were identified: parental demoralization, family warmth, negative family events, and positive stable family events. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to compare several potential causal models involving these variables. The results were most consistent with a model in which bereavement was not directly related to the child symptomatology, but rather its effects were transmitted through these four mediational mechanisms. The implications of the results of the structural modeling for the design and evaluation of preventive interventions are discussed briefly.