萨特尔和他的《辩证理性批判》

萨特尔写的《辩证理性批判》(1960)实际上是他历史论的第一卷。这是一本令人兴奋而又晦涩难懂的著作,它那令人眼花缭乱的分析连接着离题万里的议论,天才的见解埋没在曲折的思路和叙述的沙漠中,人们总是无法弄清楚他是朝着哪条道路行进。在进行综合的崇高意愿背后,该书还显示了它的抱负:“对历史的认识在什么条件下才是可能的?在怎样的范围内,那些被揭示的联系是必要的?什么是辩证的理性?”(第135页,以下未注书名的均指《辩证理性批判》)这种计划表面看来是康德主义的,但它的新颖性又说明它是来自我们时代不可超越的理论——马克思主义。这本著作注意的就是这两方面要求的结合。这位战士和介     

阿尔都塞的多元决定与结构因果观

在阿尔都塞的马克思著作研究中,多元决定和结构因果性这两个概念是十分重要的。本文将通过考察阿尔都塞对这两个概念在理解马克思的“方法论”上的价值和应用的论述,来解释这两个概念。但这种研究方法并不认为在《资本论》或其他著作中,马克思实际上有一种具体的或明确的方法论。对我们来说,马克思主义中是否有方法论仍然是一个未解决的问题。对于任何的马克思方法论的探讨,这些概念都是重要的。本文的任务之一就是表明,马克思在政治经济学中的贡献和“理论革命”不能简单地用方法论来描绘。马克思对黑格尔的辩证法思     

Pursuing and distancing: the construct and its measurement

Although the concept of interpersonal pursuing and distancing has been introduced and used clinically, the lack of a reliable and valid measure has deterred its more formal investigation and relevance to personality theory. The Pursuing-Distancing (P-D) Scale, a 92-item measure of the behavioral expression of these characteristics, was developed. Evidence for internal consistency as well as internal support of construct validity is presented and discussed. An 80-item revised scale is available from the authors and is currently being evaluated in a variety of external validation settings.     

Accommodation to increased accuracy demands by the right and left hands

This study was designed to identify the phase of rapid aimed movements responsible for hand differences in motor skill, and to evaluate potential differences between the hands in accommodating to greater accuracy demands. In both experiments, an accelerometer mounted on a stylus allowed key changes in acceleration to be used to partition the movement into phases. In Experiment 1, slower left hand movement times were attributable primarily to a terminal homing-in phase, especially as target size decreased. Since error rates varied as a function of hand and target size, speed-accuracy trade-offs may have occurred. Experiment 2 rigidly controlled error rate and confirmed the major hand difference to occur in the latter phase of the movement where error correction is presumed. Although less pronounced, adjustments were made in the earlier movement phases as well. Accommodation to greater accuracy demands involved moving the stylus closer to the target before decelerating to engage in error correction. This adjustment to gain enhanced precision was more pronounced in the left hand.     

Quantitative assessment of infant reaching movements

We have identified a fundamental property of human motor behavior as a tight coupling of the curvature-speed relationship in the reaching movements of 5- to 9-month-old infants. This relationship termed a movement unit, occurs regardless of the distance of duration of the reach and in spite of the developmental change that occurs in grasping during this period. Movement unit durations are tightly clustered around 200 ms regardless of overall duration or distance or the position of the unit in the reach. The curvature-speed coupling has been identified by others in adult reaching and handwriting. Models of biological motor control must account for this invariant relationship.     

Task-dependent compensatory responses to perturbations applied during rhythmic movements in humans

Modulation of the responses to perturbation applied during different phases of three rhythmic movements in humans-running, cycling, and hopping-was studied. The perturbation was an electrical stimulus. The results showed gating and modulation of the responses in both ipsi- and contralateral limb muscles. The responses during running and cycling were only excitatory in nature, while during hopping an inhibitory response was observed. These responses were not correlated with the normal activity during the movement. The latency of the response in general was not altered for different stimulation phases. The alterations in the step cycle demonstrated overt behavioral changes due to the responses. There were differences between the responses observed during these movements and walking. In running, the major adaptation to perturbations appears to be in the contralateral side as seen in the changes in the step cycle. During cycling (except for one phase) and hopping, the same set of muscles was activated in response to perturbation. This represents a simplifying strategy in response organization. The dependency of the response on the task characteristics, postural stability requirement, and external constraints imposed on the subject is discussed. These studies provide insights into task-dependent strategies adopted by the nervous system to meet unexpected perturbation during rhythmic movements in humans.     

Variable-interval schedules of timeout from avoidance

Rats were trained on concurrent schedules in which pressing one lever postponed shock and pressing the other occasionally produced a 2-min timeout during which the shock-postponement schedule was suspended and its correlated stimuli were removed. Throughout, the shock-postponement schedule maintained proficient levels of avoidance. Nevertheless, in Experiment 1 responding on the timeout lever was established rapidly, was maintained at stable levels on variable-interval schedules, was extinguished by withholding timeout, was reestablished when timeout was reintroduced, and was brought under discriminative control with a multiple variable-interval extinction schedule of timeout. These results are in contrast with Verhave's (1962) conclusion that timeout is an ineffective reinforcer when presented to rats on intermittent schedules. In Experiment 2 the consequence of responding on the timeout lever was altered so that the shock-postponement schedule remained in effect even though the stimulus conditions associated with timeout were produced for 2 min. Responding extinguished, indicating that suspension of the shock-postponement schedule, not stimulus change, was the source of reinforcement. By establishing the reinforcing efficacy of timeout with standard variable-interval schedules, these experiments illustrate a procedure for studying negative reinforcement in the same way as positive reinforcement.     

Conditional relations by monkeys: Reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity

Two cynomolgous macaques categorized six colors into two groups of three after conditional discrimination training (zero-delay symbolic match-to-sample). The procedures resulted in the establishment of relations among the elements of each set-relations that were not specifically trained and that can be characterized by the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. Each set of colors was related to a characteristic pattern of responding: One response pattern involved temporal duration (press and hold the response keys); the second response pattern entailed repeated pressing and releasing of the response keys (fixed ratio 8). Six combinations of two colors were trained, three combinations from each set. After discriminative performance stabilized for each monkey, they were tested with 10 additional color combinations, all of which differed from the training combinations. The conditional relations established between test combinations can be characterized as stimulus equivalence. The training procedures were analogous to the procedure of using category names, and have implications for understanding the function of language in the formation of equivalence classes.     

目的、意向和意识

本文提出了一个意向性目标搜寻的计算机模型,它有两个部分,静态部分包括一个目标表征和到达这个目标的程序。动态部分是一个感觉输入、中间信息加工,行为输出的重复的反馈循环。人类意向必然伴有意识,但机器人则可能无意识而有意向。 利用目标搜寻系统机器人模型,我们对目标搜寻系统的目的连续统下了定义;这个连续统从简单的直接反应系统一直到意向性系统。对这个目的连续统有两种传统的解释:一是柏拉图、亚里士多德和普罗提诺的终极原因理论,二是希腊原子论者和现代进化生物学家的还原主义学说。本文评价了这些学说。 本文考察了几种类型的意识机能,提出了以自动机为依据的意识理论,比较了人类和计算机。从计算机结构的角度来看,人类意识是一类特殊的计算机控制系统。     

攻击的社会性认知学习的调节

这项研究探索了小学儿童的攻击与影响儿童是否采取攻击行为的社会认知的两个等级的联系.给攻击性和非攻击性的儿童(平均年龄为11.3岁)提供二个调查表,让他们进行回答.一个调查表是测量儿童对自己进行攻击的能力及相应的行为的认识(即自我实力的认识),而另一个调查表则测量儿童对攻击性行为会得到的奖励和惩罚的后果的认识.